
NSYLVANi 



FIRST LESSONS 
IN CIVICS 

FORM AN 




Class ci)f:^ , r/ 

Book_ 



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CopyrightN^. 



11 x.- 



CPPmiGRT DEPOSIT. 



First Lessons in Civics 



A TEXT-BOOK FOR USE 
IN SCHOOLS 



BY 

S. E. FORMAN, Ph.D. 



t>>^« 



NEW YORK. : • CINCINNATI • : • CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



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COPYKIGHT, 1898, 1912, 

S. E. FORMAN. 



TOR. CIV. 

w. P. 23 






PREFACE 



If instruction in citizenship is to be given to any con- 
siderable number of the children of the country, it must 
be given in the grammar school grades, for not one child 
in twenty passes beyond them to higher schools. This 
book has therefore been prepared for use either in the 
upper grammar grades or in the first years of the high 
schools. 

An attempt has been made to state briefly and simply 
the leading facts of the several governments under which 
we live. But stating facts about government, and having 
children learn them, will not make good citizens. In the 
teaching of civics the best must always come from the 
teacher. His citizenship, his life, will teach more than 
can be learned from a book. If he teaches in the right 
spirit, he will make a lesson in civics a lesson in ethics. 
Unless it is pursued with a distinctly ethical aim, the 
study of Civil Government in public schools is of doubtful 
utility. To equip a lad with a knowledge of the working 
of governments and the rights of citizens, without equip- 
ping him with a conscience that will constrain him to 
practice the virtues of citizenship, may be to prepare him 

J 



4 PREFACE 

for a more successful career as a public rogue. This fact 
has not been lost sight of in the preparation of these les- 
sons. Appeal is constantly made to the moral sense of 
the child. 

In teaching civics, as in teaching anything else, the key 
to the situation is interest. This may be awakened and 
sustained by training the pupils in the practical work that 
confronts the citizen when he enters upon public life. 
The study of city and village charters, the drafting of 
resolutions, the framing of constitutions for societies, the 
discussion of current questions, are resources of which 
the skillful teacher will constantly avail himself. Above 
all, he will avail himself of the debate. The class may be 
resolved into a little commonwealth, where questions of 
public interest are discussed fully and fairly. By a wise 
direction of the discussion, the teacher may lead his pupils 
to become conscious of and to put into practice some of 
the cardinal virtues of citizenship. By means of debate 
they may learn to tolerate and respect the opinions of 
others, to recognize the worth of others, to express them- 
selves with candor but not with violence and abuse, to 
abandon notions based upon ignorance and prejudice, to 
submit gracefully to defeat. The questions discussed 
should be, as far as possible, such as directly affect their 
school life. For example, it may be a question whether 
the class as a body shall visit a court in session or a legis- 
lature in session. It can go to one, but not to both. The 
teacher, without throwing his influence thi^ way or that» 



PREFACE 5 

may allow the question to be discussed until the claims for 
both places are fully brought out. He may then put the 
matter to a vote. They will probably vote for the place 
where the prospect yields more fun. But the lesson will 
be none the less impressive for that. The main thing is 
to arouse a genuine division of sentiment and abide faith- 
fully by the result. Those who are outvoted will have a 
far keener perception of the meaning of majority rule than 
they could ever have gained from the words of a book. 

The discussions of the class may be so conducted as to 
result in the formulation by the pupils themselves of a 
set of rules for the citizen's guidance, a kind of citizen's 
decalogue. When their hearts as well as their minds have 
been reached, they may be taught to say : 

I must not cheat the State. 

I must not cheat the railroads. 

I must give a due share of my time and energy to pub- 
lic affairs. 

I must vote whenever it is my privilege to vote. 

I must not debauch my fellows by bribing them. 

I must not accept a bribe of any kind. 

I must make a decent living if it is in my power. 

I must prefer my country to my party. 

I must tolerate the opinions of others. 

It is sometimes charged against our schools that neither 
morality nor religion is taught in them. The teaching of 
religion seems to be out of the question, and the formal 
teaching of morals does not meet with much favor. There 



6 PREFACE 

is but little teaching in our schools that relates to the con- 
duct of life, which is, after all, by far the greater part of 
life. Is this wise ? Is it right ? Should the moral nature 
of man be so completely ignored in a scheme of educa- 
tion ? Surely the development of the ethical nature of 
children should receive formal recognition in a system of 
education. It is the teacher's duty to aid in this devel- 
opment whenever it is practicable. In the teaching of 
civics it is practicable to set pupils morally right upon a 
large class of questions, and the opportunity to do so 
should not be lost. 

S. E. FORMAN. 
Washington, D. C 



CONTENTS 

LESSON I 

PAGB 

Government and Laws 13 

Meaning of the Word " Government " — The Study of Government 
— The Necessity of Government — Laws. 

LESSON II 

The Government of Self 17 

Self-control — Self-control may be Cultivated — Reward of Doing 
Good — The Government of Self the Foundation of All Govern- 
ment. 

LESSON III 
The Family 21 

The Family in Ancient Times — The Family of To-day — The 
Duties of Parents to Children — Rights of Parents in Respect to 
their Children. 

LESSON IV 

The Family (continued') 25 

Husband and Wife; Marriage — Servants — Importance of Family 
Government 

LESSON V 

The Government of the School 29 

Pupils should know Something of School Government — The 
School District — School Officers — Powers and Duties of School 
Officers — The Teacher. 

LESSON VI 

The Government of the School {continued^ . . . -33 
Rules that Pupils must Obey — Duties of Teachers and Pupils. 



CONTENTS 



LESSON VII 

PAGE 

Citizenship — Who are Citizens . 38 

Introduction — Meaning of the Word " Citizen " — Aliens — Nat- 
uralization. 

LESSON VIII 

Citizenship — Civil Rights 41 

Civil and Political Rights — The Right to Personal Security — Per- 
sonal Liberty; Habeas Corpus — The Right of Private Property. 

LESSON IX 

Citizenship — Who are Voters 45 

The Right of Suffrage — Persons v^^ho may not Vote — Registration. 

LESSON X 

Citizenship — Elections 50 

At the Polls — Counting the Vote; Majority; Plurality — The 
Right of Holding OfEce. 

LESSON XI 

Citizenship — Duties of Citizens 56 

A Few Words about Duty — Obedience to the Law — Defense of 
One's Country — Earning a Living — Attention to Public Affairs 
— Duty of Studying Political Questions. 

LESSON XII 
Taxation 61 

Government supported by Taxes — How Each Taxpayer's Share is 
Determined — The Collection of Taxes — Exemption — " Tax 
Dodgers." 

LESSON XIII 

Taxation (^continued') 66 

Duties and Excises — The Income Tax — Licenses; Fees — Poll 
Tax — Franchises — Eminent Domain. 



CONTENTS 9 

LESSON XIV 

PAGE 

Several Terms Explained 70 

Self-government — Representative Government — The Three De- 
partments of Government. 

LESSON XV 
Town Government 75 

Early Town Government in New England — The Town Meeting — 
Town Officers. 

LESSON XVI 

The County 82 

The Virginia County — County Officers. 

LESSON XVII 
The Township 89 

The Nature of Township Government — Officers of the Township. 

LESSON XVIII 

Village and City Government 93 

Importance of the Subject — The Beginning of a City — Charters. 

LESSON XIX 

City Government 98 

The City Council — The Mayor — City Courts — What a City Gov- 
ernment should Do. 

LESSON XX 
The State 103 

The Thirteen Colonies — The Thirteen Original States — The Ad- 
mitted States. 

LESSON XXI 
The State Constitution 108 

Meaning of the Word " Constitution " — Description of a State 
Constitution — How the Constitution of a State is Made — How 
a Constitution is Changed — " Constitutional " and " Unconstitu- 
tional." 



lO CONTENTS 



LESSON XXII 

PAGB 

The State Legislature 114 

When and where the State Legislature Meets — The Two Branches 
of the Legislature — Election of Members of the Legislature — 
Organization. 

LESSON XXIII 

The State Legislature {continued) 119 

How a Law is Made — What the Legislature of a State may Do — 
Honest Men for the Legislature — The Initiative and Refer- 
endum. 

LESSON XXIV 

The Governor and his Assistants 126 

The Governor — Other Executive Officers — Impeachment. 

LESSON XXV 

Judges, Juries, and Courts of Law 132 

The Judicial Department — The Justice of the Peace — The Circuit 
Court — The Supreme Court — Civil and Criminal Cases. 

LESSON XXVI 

The National Government 138 

Importance of State Government — The Articles of Confederation 
— The Constitutional Convention of 1787. 

LESSON XXVII 
The National Legislature 144 

The Preamble to the Constitution — Congress — The House of 
Representatives — The Senate — How a Law is passed in Con- 



LESSON XXVIII 

What Congress may Do 149 

The Power of Congress Limited — The Powers of Congress. 



CONTENTS 1 1 

LESSON XXIX 

PAGE 

What Congress may Do {co77iinued) 153 

Congress has Power : {io establish Posl offices, etc.) 

LESSON XXX 

What the Constitution Forbids 158 

What Congress may not Do — What a State may not Do — The 
Fifteen Amendments. 

LESSON XXXI 

How the President is Elected 162 

The Nomination of a President — Direct Primaries — Election of 
President — Inauguration. 

LESSON XXXII 

The President and his Cabinet 168 

The Powers and Duties of the President — The Cabinet — The 
Civil Service. 

LESSON XXXIII 

The National Courts 173 

The Kind of Cases tried in the National Courts — The Three Grades 
of National Courts. 

LESSON XXXIV 

Political Parties 179 

What Political Parties are for — The Choice of a Party — Loyalty 
to Party. 

INDEX 185 



LESSONS IN CIVICS 

LESSON I 

GOVERNMENT AND LAWS 

" Order is Heaven's first law.'* 

Meaning of the Word "Government." — In the Latin lan- 
guage the word gubernator means a pilots a steersman, one 
who guides ; and from this word gubernator we derive our 
word governor. A governor, therefore, is one who guides 
something, and the word government means guidance or 
management. Thus when we speak of the government 
of a home, we refer to the management of the private 
affairs of the home; when we speak of the government 
of a State, we refer to the management of the pubUc 
affairs in the State. The word government will be used 
a great many times in this book, and we shall learn that 
there are many kinds of government. We shall speak 
of "self-government," of " school government," of "fam- 
ily government," of "state government," of "national 
government." Wherever the word government occurs, it 
will mean guidance, management^ control. 

The Study of Government. — You are now going to 
study the subject of government ; that is, you are going 
to study how the affairs of mankind are managed; how 

13 



14 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

men and women are guided in their journey through the 
world amidst other men and women ; how society is held 
together and controlled. The study is of great impor- 
tance, and should be of great interest, for the happiness 
of men depends largely upon the kind of government that 
guides and controls their lives. The study of government 
should interest children as well as men ; for children, as 
well as men, are deeply affected by the government under 
which they live. In his earliest years the child is under 
the government of his parents. As soon as he is old 
enough he is sent to school, where a new government 
enters into his life and controls his actions. He now 
live*' under the government of the school, as well as 
under the government of the home. He must obey his 
teacher, as well as his father and mother. When he goes 
out into the streets, and parks, and fields, he finds that 
there is another government to restrain him and regulate 
his conduct. If he is very noisy, or if he runs upon 
flower beds in the park, or if he takes fruit from the 
orchard of a stranger, he is promptly checked by a 
policeman or other officer, and is, perhaps, punished for 
his offense. The boy has now learned that there is a 
third government which he must obey, — the government 
of the city, or of the State. And thus it is all through 
life ; no matter where we go, or which way we turn, 
government always and everywhere follows us and regu- 
lates our actions. If the governments that control us are 
wise, and just, and kind, we are made happier by them ; 
if they are harsh, or foolish, or tyrannical, our lives are 
made miserable by them. By studying and understand- 



LESSON I 15 

ing the different forms of government under which we 
live, we may prepare ourselves to make them better. 

The Necessity of Government. — Whenever two or more 
people live together, there must be rules to regulate their 
actions. Without such rules they would quarrel and fight, 
brutal passions would be their guide, and they would soon 
become savages. Hence, no matter how small or how 
rude the society, a government of some kind is necessary. 
Try to think what would happen around you if no one was 
under any sort of control, if every one could follow his own 
will and his own appetites and desires. 

Laws. — The rules that governments make to guide our 
actions are called laws. A law states what we are to do 
and forbids what we are not to do. When a law has been 
made it must be obeyed. No man can disobey a law with- 
out being liable to punishment for his disobedience. We 
may not like a law, we may think a law unjust or unwise, 
yet so long as it is a law we must obey it. Moreover, 
when a person violates a law, he is punished, although he 
did not know there was such a law when he violated it. 
Ignorance of what the law is will excuse no one. Laws 
are made for the government of us all, and if we do not 
know what they are it is either our fault or our misfortune. 

How laws are made and changed, and how people are 
forced to obey them, and punished for disobeying them, 
will be explained hereafter. At present it is enough to 
know that any government worthy of the name is always 
strong enough to enforce the laws that are made. It is 
the duty of all who live under a government to obey the 
laws of that government without being compelled to do so. 



t6 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

If we think a certain law is bad, it is our right and our 
duty to try to have it changed. Are you compelled to 
obey any laws that you think are unjust? 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 

1. What is the meaning of the v^oxdi governess? governmental? 
ungover7iable ? gubernatorial 

2. Explain the use of the "governor" on a steam engine. 

3. Name the people whom you know to be officers of government. 

4. What would happen if people on the street were allowed to do 
just as they pleased? 

5. What is a hermit? 

6. The heavenly bodies move according to certain laws. What do 
you think would happen if these laws should cease to operate, and sun, 
moon, and stars should move according to no fixed law? 

7. Watch the movements of ants. Do you not see signs of govern- 
ment among them ? 

8. Watch a large flock of birds flying through the air. Do you not 
see signs of government among the birds ? 

9. Can you see law and order in the world of nature around you ? 
Observe an ear of corn ; a rose ; a leaf. 

10. Name some of the uses of government and law. 



LESSON II 

THE GOVERNMENT OF SELF 

" He that ruleth his spirit is better than he that taketh a city." — Bible. 

Self-Control. — Before you begin to study the different 
forms of government under which we live, I wish to call 
your attention to something that is at the foundation of all 
government. I wish you to think for a few moments upon 
the subject of the government of one's self, or self-control. 
You doubtless feel in yourself the power to control your 
own actions in many ways. You can be studious, or you 
can be idle ; you can be respectful, or you can be impu- 
dent ; you can be kind, or you can be cruel. I think you 
will not deny that there is within yourself a government 
which controls your private actions; a will that directs 
the actions of your mind and body. We should all con- 
stantly ask ourselves whether our wills carry us in the 
right direction. True self-control consists in deciding to 
do what is right and doiftg it. Anger, appetite, laziness, 
envy, jealousy, pride, revenge, tempt us to do wrong. 
Love, duty, conscience, whisper to us to do right. For 
which shall we decide — for the wrong or for the right.? 
If we decide for the wrong, we may in the end become the 
slaves of our passions and be destroyed. For which, then, 
shall we decide } 

LESS. IN CIV. — 2 17 



1 8 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

Self-Control may be cultivated. — I believe you all think 
that you ought to control yourselves and do right, but 
some of you may feel unequal to the task of always doing 
right. Now self-control lies in the will. If your will is 
strong, you will be able to govern yourself under the most 
trying circumstances; if it is weak, you will not. But 
remember this: A weak will may be strengthened by 
exercise, just as an arm may be strengthened by exer 
cise. If a boy who has learned to smoke feels that smok- 
ing is injuring him, he should leave off the habit at once. 
When a cigar is offered to him he should refuse to take it. 
This may be hard to do at first. Let him refuse a second 
time and he will find it easier; a third time he will find it 
still easier. By continuing to refuse he will at last find 
that his desire to smoke has gone. His will conquers his 
appetite and he is master of himself. If a girl who in- 
dulges in the ugly habit of saying spiteful and untruthful 
things about her acquaintances becomes ashamed of her- 
self and desires to do better, she should begin by exercis- 
ing and strengthening her will. When she hears some one 
saying unjust things about another, instead of helping 
along with the abuse, she should keep silent, even if she 
must bite her tongue to do so. By refusing for a time to 
speak falsely or unjustly about people, she will find that it 
is not necessary to bite her tongue to prevent herself from 
joining in when she hears slanderous remarks. She will 
probably be inclined to use her tongue either to rebuke 
the slanderer or to say something good about the person 
slandered. Young people will find that a strong will bent 
on doing right will carry them safely past temptation. 



LESSON II eq 

The Reward of Doing Right. — Thoughtless young peo- 
ple sometimes ask: "What is the use of doing right? 
What is the use of checking bad impulses and exercising 
self-control ? " If you will look around you, and reflect 
upon what you see, you will find an answer to this ques- 
tion. You will find that the people who exercise control 
over themselves are happier than those who are carried 
along by passion and appetite. Sometimes, it is true, 
wicked and violent men seem to prosper and even to be 
happy. But they are not really happy. If you could 
learn the secret of their lives, you will find that bad, dis- 
honest men lack one thing that is more precious than any- 
thing else in life. They may have wealth, and honor, and 
high social rank, but they have not their own self-respect^ 
and no one can be truly happy without this. With self- 
respect one can never be thoroughly unhappy. You may 
be unfortunate or unsuccessful ; people may scorn you or 
neglect you, yet if you always firmly do the right thing, 
you will always have a good conscience and your own 
self-respect. 

The Government of Self the Foundation of all Govern- 
ment. — There is another reward for those who exercise a 
strict control over themselves. Their government of self 
makes them good citizens and fits them to take part in the 
government of others. A community is composed of indi- 
viduals, and the character of its government will be like 
the character of the individuals who compose it. If it 
contains a large number of rogues, swindlers, idlers, 
drunkards, then its government will certainly be bad, for 
the government of a people is never much better than the 



20 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

people themselves. If a community consists of honest, 
industrious, moral citizens, then it will have a good gov- 
ernment. Good government begins with the individual, it 
begins with you personally. If you intend to take a part 
in public affairs when you grow up, and if you intend to 
help in making your government better, you should begin 
by trying to make a good man of yourself. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

1. Learn the following facts about the will : 
{a) The will grows strong by exercise. 

{p) The will may be assisted by favorable surroundings. If you de- 
termine to leave off an old habit and form a new one, put your- 
self under favorable conditions, make new associations, avoid 
temptations, take advantage of every outward aid. — James. 

{c) The will should never lose a battle. 

(^) The will should act when it is called upon to act; it should 
never shun a battle. 

{e) We may strengthen the will by doing things now and then 
simply because we don't want to do them. 

2. Name the faults which stand opposed to each of the following 
virtues : courage, perseverance, industry, cheerfulness, simplicity, self' 
reliance, liberality. 

3. Arrange the following virtues in the order of their importance, 
placing the most desirable virtue first : teynperance^ truthfulness^ fru- 
gality, prudence, honesty, modesty, unselfishness, patience, charitableness, 
reverence. Give reasons for your arrangement. 

4. Arrange the following faults in the order in which you dislike 
them, placing the fault you dislike most first : anger, stinginess, revenge, 
hypocrisy^ tardiness, jealousy, self-conceit, envy, cruelty, stubbornness. 

5. Make out (i) a list of those virtues that are good for the home, 
(2) a list of those virtues that are good for the school, (3) a list of 
those virtues that are good for society at large. 

6. Define conscience. When you do wrong, is it the fault of your 
conscience or of your will ? How may the conscience be improved ? 



LESSON III 

THE FAMILY 

" There is in the family an angel possessed of a mysterious influ- 
ence of grace, sweetness, and love ; an angel who renders our duties 
more cheerful and our sorrows less bitter. This angel is woman. 
Whether as mother, wife, or sister, woman is the joy of existence. She 
is a treasure of gentle consolation sufficient to soothe every sorrow. It 
is through woman that the family points to Eternity. Hold then the 
family sacred, my brothers. Reject every attempt to undermine it, for 
it is of God." — Mazzini. 

The Family in Ancient Times. — The oldest form of 
government with which we are acquainted is that which 
exists within the family. In very early times men did not 
live in large bodies and associate closely with each other 
as they do in our day. The father, as the head of the 
family, was the only one that made laws, and he was, 
therefore, the only one that must be obeyed. 

The power of the father in those old times was very 
great. He had complete control over the lives and for- 
tunes of all the members of his family. He could sentence 
a son or a daughter to death ; he could sell his children 
into slavery. A son, whatever might be his age, could 
not marry without the consent of his father, and could not 
acquire land or other kind of property and hold it in his 
own name. Even the children of a son were in the power, 
not of their father, but of their grandfather. 

21 



22 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

The Family of To-day. — In our times the power of 
the father over his children is not so great. Many of the 
things that the father once could do can now be done only 
by the government of the State. Yet even now there is 
no government that affects the lives of young people 
more than that which comes to them from their parents. 
Parents regulate the conduct of children, support them, 
protect them, educate them. It is in the home, while 
members of the family, that children must look for their 
greatest happiness. The law that should govern, and 
that usually does govern, in the family is the law of love 
and duty. Parents, as a rule, devote their lives to the 
happiness of their children. What should children do in 
return ? 

It has been found that parents are not always kind and 
loving and just towards their children, and that children 
are not always grateful and obedient to their parents. It 
sometimes happens that the parent or the child fails to do 
his duty. When this does happen, the government of the 
State steps in and commands what must be done. Let us 
learn something of the rights and duties which the law 
will not allow parents or children to disregard. 

The Duties of Parents to Children. 

(i) Support. — The first duty the parent owes to the 
child is to support it, to provide it with food, clothing, 
and shelter. If a father should be so hard-hearted as to 
turn his child out of doors and refuse to give it food, a 
stranger could take the child into his house and feed it 
and charge the father with the expense, and the law would 



LESSON III 23 

compel the father to pay the bill. This duty of parents 
to support their children continues until the children are 
twenty-one years of age. After that time children may 
not look to their parents for support. It is not often that 
the law interferes with the parents in these matters ; love 
alone is nearly always strong enough to hold them to their 
duty. 

(2) Education. — A second duty which parents owe to 
their children is to educate them. In many of the coun- 
tries of Europe, and in most of the States of our own 
country, parents are compelled by law to send their chil- 
dren to school. In every State schools are provided for 
children free of cost, and parents are expected to send 
their children to them : "A parent who sends his son into 
the world uneducated does a great injury to mankind as 
well as to his own family, for he deprives the community 
of a useful citizen." Do you think the State should com- 
pel parents to send their children to school ? 

Rights of Parents in Respect to their Children. — Parents 
have not duties only, in respect to their children; they 
have rights also. 

(i) Obedience. — They have the right to the obedience 
of their children. The child must obey its parents in all 
reasonable commands. If it refuses to obey, it may be 
punished in such manner as the parents think fit. The 
punishment, however, must be reasonable ; it must be such 
as not to endanger the health of the child or injure it in 
mind or body. 

(2) Service. — Parents have the right to the service of 



24 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

their children. Until children are of age they must work 
for their parents if their parents need their service. If 
they earn wages, their parents have a right to take their 
earnings. 

(3) Assistance in Old Age. — If the parents are old and 
poor and unable to take care of themselves, their children 
may be compelled to assist them. Just as parents are 
compelled to support the child when it is young and help- 
less, so the child is compelled to support its parents when 
they are old and helpless. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 

1. What is the average number of persons in a family? (Find the 
number of persons in ten families of your acquaintance and divide this 
number by ten.) 

2. Are parents responsible for the actions of their children? 

3. Who is the most unselfish member of the home? 

4. Is it a kindness for parents to live beyond their means for the 
sake of their children? 

5. Name some bad habits that children are guilty of in their homes. 

6. What sacrifices do parents make in order that their children may 
be kept at school ? 

7. How may parents be repaid for these sacrifices ? 

8. How should disobedient children be punished? 



LESSON IV 

THE FAMILY (Continued) 

Husband and Wife ; Marriage. — At the head of the 
family government stand the father and mother who are 
united as husband and wife by marriage. Marriage is 
regarded by the law as a contract, but it is a very strong 
contract, and it ought to be a very sacred one. It is 
a contract that cannot be, and ought not to be, easily 
broken. Marriage is the bond which holds the family 
together, and it is of the utmost importance to us, both as 
individuals and as a people, that the family be held to- 
gether as firmly as possible. The blessings of the family 
as an institution ought to be ever before our eyes. In the 
family we grow in character as we can grow nowhere else. 
In no other place can we learn the lessons of devotion and 
sacrifice and unselfishness that we learn in the home. Be- 
sides being a nursery of virtues and a source of happiness 
for its individual members, the family brings countless 
blessings to society at large. Indeed, we may say that the 
family is the foundation upon which all society rests. If 
you should destroy the family, you would destroy cities and 
states and governments and even civilization itself. And 
just as the family holds society together, so the marriage 
tie holds the family together. This great truth should 
never be forgotten. Nations have sometimes forgotten it, 
and they have always suffered for doing so. 

as 



26 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

In olden times the wife was regarded as the property of 
the husband, and everything that she owned before mar- 
riage became his after marriage. But in our day woman 
holds a higher place in the family. She is regarded as the 
equal of the husband, not as his slave. In most States she 
may hold in her own name the property she had before 
marriage, and if she acquires property after marriage she 
may claim it as her own. The law is gradually coming to 
regard woman with more favor and to bestow upon her 
more rights than she had in the past. The husband is 
bound to support his wife. If he refuses her the neces- 
saries of life she may buy what she needs from any one 
who will trust her and the husband will be compelled to pay 
for what she gets. If the wife leaves her husband without 
cause and of her own free will, he will not be compelled to 
support her. Upon the death of the husband the wife has 
the right of dower ; that is, she has a right for her lifetime 
to one third of the property in land held by her husband at 
his death. 

Servants. — Servants employed to assist in the work of 
the household are not usually regarded as members of the 
family, yet in discussing family government we must not 
pass them by without a word. There was a time when the 
position of the servant in the family was quite different 
from what it is now. A hundred years ago the relation 
between servant and master was close. The master then 
would protect his servant from harm, would care for him 
when he was sick, would support him in his old age. The 
servant in return was loyal to his master and rendered to 
him a faithful and willing service. And it was the same 



LESSON IV 27 

with the maidservants of the household. Mistresses in 
the olden times did not look upon their maids as hirelings 
unworthy of sympathy or help. We may learn from a 
Greek author how a lady was expected to treat her ser- 
vants in ancient times. A husband and his young wife are 
talking over household matters just after their marriage: 

Husband. " But there is one of the duties belonging 
to you which, perhaps, will be more painful to you than 
any other, namely, the care of your servants when they 
are ill." 

Wife. ** Nay, that will be most pleasing to me of all 
my duties if only m.y servants will be grateful when I min- 
ister rightly to them and will love me better." 

Hiisba7id. "You will have other duties that you will 
like better. When one of your handmaidens does not 
know how to spin you will teach her, and make her twice 
the girl she was ; or when one is ignorant of housekeeping 
you will teach her how to manage a house and make her 
faithful and mistresslike, and every way worthy." 

From this dialogue we learn that in Greece more than 
two thousand years ago the mistress of the house took a 
deep personal interest in the welfare and happiness of her 
servants, and that she was bound to them by ties of love 
and duty. In order that she might be better served she 
tried to make her servants noble and good. 

We must confess that in our own day there is no such 
happy relation existing between mistress and maid. The 
mistress usually thinks her duty is ended when she has 
paid her servant the wages, and the servant is careful to 



28 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

render as little true service as possible. The result is dis- 
content and quarreling and frequent changes. Would it 
not be better for the mistress, would she not be better 
served, if she treated her servants with kindness and 
friendliness } Would it not be better for servants to try 
to win their employers* good will and affection by thor- 
ough service and loyal deeds ? 

Importance of the Family Government. — The govern- 
ment of the family is the smallest of the governments that 
we shall have to study, but it is not the least important. 
The larger governments, such as the city or the State, are 
simply a number of families bound together, and if all the 
families of a town or of a State were well governed, there 
is no doubt that the town or the State itself would be well 
governed. How important then is it that we should do all 
in our power to make our homes what they should be. 
Children can serve their country simply by doing their 
duty in their homes. They can repay the love and sacri- 
fice of their parents by loving and unselfish deeds. Broth- 
ers and sisters may bless their homes by living at peace 
with each other. We should never forget that tAe law of 
the home is the law of love^ service, and sacrifice. 



LESSON V 

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL 

" The school should be pervaded by a spirit of honesty and truth- 
fulness. It should inspire its pupils with a manly resistance to all 
temptations to deceive or be false." — E. E. White. 

Pupils should know Something of School Government. — 

For several years you have attended school, and while in 
school you have found that you are under a government ; 
that you cannot do as you please ; that teachers and school 
officers regulate your conduct in many ways. This gov- 
ernment of the school, in the lives of young people, is 
next in importance to the government of the family. The 
present happiness, as well as the future welfare of pupils, 
depends in a large degree upon how the school which they 
attend is governed. Pupils, therefore, should understand 
something of the nature of school government. If you 
will study this subject carefully, you will understand your 
teachers better, and your school life may thereby be made 
pleasanter. Very frequently trouble arises in a school- 
room merely because teachers and pupils do not under- 
stand each other. 

The School District. — You are sent to school in order 
that you may acquire useful knowledge, and that your 
mind may be trained to think rightly upon questions 
that may arise in your life. The State provides for you 

^9 



30 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

schools which you may attend free of cost. It does this 
in order that you may grow up to be intelligent citizens. 
Ignorant citizens are a source of danger to a state. In 
order that all children may attend school, schoolhouses 
are built at convenient distances from each other in all 
parts of the country. It is rare that a child lives more 
than three miles from a school. When a school is to 
be established, a portion of territory with definite boun- 
daries is laid off as a School District. Near the center 
of this district is built the schoolhouse. In a thinly popu- 
lated community the school may have but one teacher and 
but twenty or thirty pupils. In a thickly populated dis- 
trict, as in a city, a single school may have twenty or more 
teachers and a thousand or more pupils. Whether small 
or large, the School District is the unit of school govern- 
ment. 

School Officers. — At the head of the government of the 
School District is a body of officials whose duty it is to 
appoint the teacher and supervise the affairs of the school. 
This governing body is known by different names in dif- 
ferent States. In some States it is called the School 
Committee, and is elected each year by the voters of the 
School District. In other States it is called the Board of 
School Trustees, and is not elected but is appointed by 
some authority above it. Sometimes the governing body 
is called the Board of School Directors : sometimes it is 
called the Board of Education. In a few States it is 
called the Board of School Visitors. In all the States 
every public school has a set of officers, — whatever they 
may be called, — who exercise a very close and a very 



LESSON V 31 

complete direction of its affairs. In other words, every 
school has its governors and its government. 

Powers and Duties of School Officers. — The school offi- 
cers of the District have at their disposal for school pur- 
poses a certain amount of money raised by taxation. 
With this money they pay the salary of the teachers, 
build and repair schoolhouses, furnish the schools with 
fuel, furniture, maps, books, and other supplies. They 
make rules for the government of teachers, and usually 
declare what studies shall be taught. They may make 
rules for the government of pupils if they choose to do 
so, although generally they allow the teachers to make 
such rules. In all important matters relating to the school 
the teachers must consult the school officers of the Dis- 
trict. For example, a teacher may send an unruly pupil 
home for a short time, but he cannot expel the pupil; 
that is, he cannot take away from the pupil entirely the 
right of coming to the school. A pupil can be expelled 
only with the consent of the school officers. These offi- 
cers determine the hours of opening and closing schools ; 
they fix the lengths of recesses ; they decide when a holi- 
day may be given ; they care for the health of the pupils. 
Thus we see they play a most important part in the gov- 
ernment of the school. 

The Teacher. — Next to the school officials in the gov- 
ernment of the school comes the teacher. So far as the 
pupils are concerned, the teacher is the real head of the 
school. The duty of the teacher is twofold, — he must 
teach, and he must govern. As there can be no good 
teaching where there is not good government, the teacher 



32 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

must make every effort to secure obedience and good 
habits in his pupils. In order to do this, he usually makes 
a set of rules for the guidance of the school. If these 
rules are just and reasonable, the pupils must obey them. 
If a pupil refuses to obey a proper rule, he may be pun- 
ished for his disobedience ; if he persists in disobeying, he 
may be expelled from the school. What are some of the 
rules that a teacher may make and that pupils must obey ? 
In the next lesson I will mention a few of those rules that 
judges in courts of law have found reasonable and have 
upheld teachers in enforcing. The rules that will be men- 
tioned are such as no pupil can safely disobey. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 

1. Do you know the boundaries of your School District? Draw a 
map of the district, locating the schoolhouse. 

2. May a pupil living in one School District attend school in an- 
other? 

3. Name the members of your School Committee. 

4. In some States women may serve as school officers. Do women 
serve as school officers in your State ? 

5. Draw up a formal petition asking your School Committee to pur- 
chase something that your school needs. 

6. Is a pupil on his way to or from school under the government of 
the school or under the government of his parents ? 

7. In what subjects are teachers required to pass an examination 
before they are permitted to teach ? 

8. Imagine you are a school officer and write a letter appointing 
a teacher ; a letter accepting a teacher's resignation. 

9. Draw up resolutions expressing sorrow for the death of a school* 
mate or teacher, and sympathy for the relatives. 



LESSON VI 

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL (Continued) 

•' The seven cardinal virtues of the school are : regularity, punctu- 
ality, neatness, accuracy, silence, industry, and obedience." 

— E. E. White. 

Rules that Pupils must Obey : 

Rule I. Pupils must not be Tardy. — " Tardiness is 
a direct injury to the whole school. The confusion of 
hurrying to seats, gathering together of books, etc., by 
tardy ones, at a time when all should be at study, cannot 
fail to impede the progress of those who are regular and 
prompt in attendance. The rule requiring prompt and 
regular attendance is demanded for the good of the whole 
school. It is therefore a rule for the government of the 
school, and must be regarded as proper and reasonable." 

Rule II. Pupils must conduct themselves properly while 

at School. — '' Henry H was expelled from school by 

the Committee of Rockport, M , for acts of misconduct, 

which consisted of whispering, laughing, acts of playful- 
ness and rudeness to other pupils, inattention to study, 
and conduct tending to cause confusion and distract the 
attention of other scholars from their studies and reci- 
tations." Henry thought the expulsion was unjust, and 
brought suit against the Committee. The judge who tried 

LESS. IN CIV. — 3 33 



34 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

his case thought that the boy was justly expelled, and 
decided in favor of the Committee. 

Rule III. Pupils should be Regular in Attendance. — 
Pupils may not be allowed to remain absent from school 
without a satisfactory excuse. They may be required to 
bring written excuses for absence. On this rule a judge, 
delivering an opinion in court, said : " Continued or re- 
peated absences of one of a class is not only injurious to 
the absentee but, if allowed beyond a certain point, is 
calculated to demoralize those who attend and derange the 
orderly instruction of the teacher." Notice that the judge 
was not so much interested in the boy who was absent as 
he was in the pupils who were regular in their attendance. 
It is the welfare of a whole school, and not the welfare of 
a single person, that must be considered when making a 
rule for the government of pupils. In what ways does 
absence interfere with the general work of the school } 

Rule IV. Pupils must not Play Truant. — When a 
child that has been sent to school by its parents does not 
come to school, it commits truancy, and this is an offense 
against good school government. In some States and in 
many cities truant officers are employed to follow up 
truants and bring them to school. Truancy is a grave | 
fault, and pupils who commit it are liable to get them- f 
selves into serious trouble. A judge in a court of law is 
usually severe with truants. What does the truant lose 
by remaining away from school } What does the school 
lose ? 

Rule V. Pttpils must pursue the Prescribed Course of 
Studies. — Every school has, or ought to have, a regular 



LESSON VI 35 

course of study which all pupils are to follow. If pupils 
were allowed to select their own studies, there would be 
the greatest confusion. No two would select exactly the 
same studies. Neither can pupils be allowed to choose 
the class in which they are to recite. Both their studies 
and their rank in school must be left to the decision of the 
teacher. Would you rather be in a class where the work 
was too easy for you, or in a class where the work was 
difficult ? 

Duties of Teachers and Pupils. — The few rules that 
have been given above are such as have been found neces- 
sary in all schools. In all schools children must be punc- 
tual, they must be regular in their attendance, they must 
be obedient, they must not play truant, they must pursue 
the studies that are selected for them. Many other rules 
might be mentioned, but more are not necessary. After 
all, a school is not made good by rules. A good school is 
one in which both teachers and pupils try day by day to 
do their du^j/. What is meant by duty ? What is it to do 
one's duty.? You do your duty when you do what your 
conscience tells you is right. Try to find out what is 
right, and when you have decided what is right, act for 
the right, and you have done your duty. It is sometimes 
hard to tell what is right and what is wrong, but some 
things are pretty clear. It is perfectly clear that it is the 
duty of the teacher to do the following things : 



(i) To prepare himself thoroughly in the subjects that 

J teaches. 

(2) To work hard for the advancement of all his pupils. 



36 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

(3) To treat his pupils with respect and kindness, and 
to extend to them, whenever he can, help and sympathy. 

(4) To set an example of right living. A bad man 
cannot be a good teacher. 

(5) To be punctual. A teacher cannot expect his pupils 
to be prompt if he allows himself to be tardy. 

(6) To be careful of his own health and of the health 
of his pupils. 

(7) To train his pupils in such habits as will make good 
men and women of them. 

These are a few of the duties of a teacher. Your 
teacher has doubtless thought much upon the subject of 
his duty, and has perhaps read books upon the subject. 
It would not be strange if you have thought very little of 
your duty; yet as pupils you have your duties, and you 
ought to learn what they are and try to fulfill them. A 
few of the most important duties of pupils are : 

(i) To obey cheerfully the five rules that have been 
stated. 

(2) To avoid wasting their own time or the time of 
their fellow-pupils by whispering, passing notes, or mak- 
ing unnecessary noises in the schoolroom. ' 

(3) To be kind and respectful to their teachers and 
schoolmates. 

(4) To be truthful in all things. 

(5) To be loyal to the school and to support the teacher 
in his efforts to improve it. 

(6) To be neat and clean in dress and person. j 

(7) To avoid speaking ill of their classmates. 



LESSON VI 37 

(8) To avoid slandering or misrepresenting the teacher. 

(9) To avoid bearing tales. 

(10) To refrain from cutting, marking, injuring, or de- 
facing school property. 

(11) To obey all signals promptly. 

(12) To conduct themselves properly on the way to 
and from school. 

There are, of course, other duties besides those men- 
tioned above. In the schoolroom, as elsewhere, there 
are constantly arising questions of duty that can only be 
settled by taking into consideration particular facts and 
circumstances. In all cases, however, the rule is the 
same : Do right, forget self, and do what your conscience 
tells you to do. By following the path of duty a pupil 
will help to make his school what it ought to be — a place 
where the minds and hearts of boys and girls are trained 
for the highest manhood and womanhood. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 

1 . From the list of duties of pupils given in the lesson a most im- 
portant duty is omitted. What is the duty ? 

2. Make a Hst of duties that parents owe to the school. 

3. Make a list of duties that teachers owe to parents. 

4. Name the qualities that teachers like in pupils. 

5. Name the qualities that pupils like in teachers. 

6. When things go wrong at home with teachers and pupils, do 
they ever take their spite out in the schoolroom? 

7. What does the word impartial mean? Can a teacher be per- 
fectly impartial? 

8. In your conduct towards your teachers and schoolmates, do 
you follow the " golden rule " ? 

9. Discuss " cheating " and " copying." 

10. Name some of the benefits of education. 



LESSON VII 
CITIZENSHIP 

WHO ARE CITIZENS 

" The ideal citizen is the man who believes that all men are brothers, 
and that the nation is merely an extension of his family, to be loved, 
respected, and cared for accordingly." — Habberton. 

Introduction. — We have studied the government of the 
family and the government of the school and have learned 
something of the rights and duties of the members of a 
household, and also something of the rights and duties of 
pupils and teachers. The governments that we shall study 
hereafter are those that we meet with outside of the family 
and school. They are governments that include a much 
larger number of people than either the family or the 
school. A family seldom consists of more than a dozen 
persons, while the school seldom numbers more than sev- 
eral hundred pupils. But the larger governments that 
you will be interested in when you go out from school con- 
sist of many thousands, and some of them of millions, of 
people. They are governments, therefore, far more diffi- 
cult to understand than that of the family or the school. 
But as they are governments that most of you will be 
called upon to take a part in managing, it is highly impor- 
tant that you understand their workings. Before we take 

38 



LESSON VII 39 

up the study of these larger governments, in order that we 
may be able to understand our subject better, we shall 
have several lessons on the subject of citizenship, and 
shall try to learn what are our rights and duties as 
citizens. 

Meaning of the Word ** Citizen." — Let us begin by 
trying to learn what is meant by the word citizen. In 
the strict meaning of the word a citizen is one who has 
the rights and privileges of an inhabitant of a city ; but 
the word now means more than this. A citizen is one who 
has the rights and privileges of the inhabitants of a state 
or nation. As a member of the family you have certain 
rights and duties under the family government; as a 
member of a school you have certain rights and duties 
under the government of the school ; and so, as one of the 
inhabitants of a nation, you have certain rights and duties 
under the government of that nation. A citizen of a coun- 
try is one born in that country. If you were born in the 
United States, you are a citizen of the United States. The 
rank of citizen does not belong to grown men alone, for 
women and children are as truly citizens as men are. To 
be a citizen is simply to be a recognized member of a com- 
munity, and the test of such membership is birth within 
the community. 

Aliens. — But there are many people among us who 
were not born in the United States. Thousands come to 
our shores every week from foreign countries. These 
foreigners are citizens of another country, and are for 
that reason called aliens, the word alien meaning another. 
Aliens have not so many rights and privileges as citizens 



40 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

have. As a rule they are not allowed to vote, and in 
some States they are not allowed to hold land in their own 
name. 

Naturalization. — Many of the aliens living among us 
continue to be citizens of the country in which they were 
born. Yet if they so desire they can be naturalized, that 
is, they can be made citizens of our country by a process 
of law called naturalization. Before an alien can be 
naturalized, he must have lived five years in this country. 

An alien who wishes to be naturalized must first go into 
some court of law and declare upon oath before a judge 
that he intends to become a citizen of the United States. 
This is called "declaring his intention." Not less than 
two years nor more than seven years after he has declared 
his intention, the alien must again appear in court and 
swear that he renounces forever all allegiance to any 
foreign country and especially to the country of which 
he is at the time a citizen. He must also swear to sup- 
port the Constitution of the United States. If the judge 
finds that the alien is able to speak the English language 
and write his own name, that he has resided in the United 
States for five years, and that he is a person of good moral 
character, the alien will then be declared to be a citizen of 
the United States. 

There are certain classes of aliens who are not allowed 
to be naturalized, no matter how long they may live here. 
AHen Chinese and Japanese cannot be naturalized and 
therefore cannot become citizens of the United States. 
Anarchists — persons opposed to all forms of organized 
government — are also refused the gift of naturalization. 



LESSON VIII 
CITIZENSHIP (Continued) 

CIVIL RIGHTS 

" What is liberty without wisdom and without virtue ? It is folly, 
vice, and madness." — Edmund Btirke. 

Civil and Political Rights. — We shall now speak of 
those rights of which American citizens are so proud. 
The rights of the citizen may be divided into two classes : 
(i), his civil rights, and (2), his political rights. Civil rights 
are those that are enjoyed by all citizens whether men, 
women, or children. For example, they are such rights 
as pupils may enjoy. Political rights are such as adult 
citizens have of sharing in government. Thus the right 
to vote and hold office are political rights. In this lesson 
we shall speak of civil rights. 

The Right to Personal Security. — By this is meant the 
right to be secure from injury to our body, our health, and 
our reputation. If our person is attacked, if violent hands 
are laid upon us, we can call upon the government to 
defend us. Policemen, sheriffs, and constables are em- 
ployed at public expense to secure citizens from harm. If 
a citizen is attacked, and he cannot get the immediate aid 
of an officer, he has the right to defend himself. If a 
burglar breaks into a house at night, the occupant of the 

41 



42 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

house, in defense of himself and family, may lawfully kill 
him. If a citizen is threatened harm by a person, he may 
have the one who threatens him taken before a magistrate 
and bound with sureties to keep the peace. If the health 
of citizens is threatened by some nuisance, as by poisonous 
fumes from a factory, or by a careless accumulation of 
filth, the citizen may call upon the government to have the 
nuisance removed or abated. In these and in many other 
ways the government cares for the personal safety and 
happiness of the citizen. The government will also defend 
the reputation of its citizens. If a person slanders you, 
that is, talks about you in such a way as to injure your 
good name and lower your standing in the community, you 
may call upon the government to defend you and punish 
him who slanders you. If what is said about you is true, 
you can, of course, do nothing. A person whose conduct 
is what it ought to be will have but little to fear from 
slander. 

Personal Liberty ; Habeas Corpus. — Another right that 
all citizens enjoy is the right of personal liberty. By this 
is meant the right to move about freely from place to 
place without hindrance, to choose a place of residence, 
to engage in whatever occupation one may see fit, to wor- 
ship in the church of one's choice, and to speak and print 
one's thoughts. Of course while you are under the charge 
of your parents you cannot enjoy this right so fully as you 
will when you shall come of age. The right of personal 
liberty is one of the most valuable rights that free men 
possess. In olden times a powerful man could throw an 
humble man into a dungeon and keep him there as long 



LESSON VIII 43 

as he desired. In our day such a wrong cannot be in- 
flicted upon a citizen. No citizen can be imprisoned by 
a private person, nor can any one be imprisoned at all 
without just cause. If a person is thrown into prison, 
or is put into confinement against his will, he has the right 
to a writ of habeas corpus. Every one should know some- 
thing of this famous writ, for it is the greatest safeguard 
of personal liberty. Let us see what the writ of habeas 
corpus is and what it does for the citizen. Suppose you 
are thrown into prison unjustly, or that you are confined 
in some place against your will ; how shall you get out .'' 
Somebody who is interested in you, perhaps it will be a 
lawyer, will go at once to a judge of a court and ask that 
you be taken out of prison immediately and brought before 
a judge in order that your case may be heard. The judge 
is bound to grant this request, he is bound to have you 
brought before him at once. He, therefore, at once issues 
a writ of habeas corpics. This writ is an order to the 
sheriff, or whoever it is that keeps you in confinement, to 
bring you as soon as possible, before the court. When 
you are brought before the judge, and it is found that you 
are innocent of crime, you are restored to your freedom. 
If the judge should find that there is good reason for your 
imprisonment, he will send you back to jail to await a 
regular trial. Thus we see that the writ of habeas corpus 
gives quick relief to a person who has been unjustly im- 
prisoned. In times of war or great public danger, this 
writ may be suspended, and when it is suspended a citizen 
may be confined in prison for no cause whatever, merely 
on suspicion. 



44 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

The Right of Private Property. — A citizen has the 
right to hold property in his own name, and the govern- 
ment must protect him in the enjoyment of this property. 
If any one attempts to deprive a man of that which he 
lawfully owns, the government will come to the aid of the 
owner and will punish the offender. If a mob burns down 
a house, or in some other way destroys property, the local 
government can sometimes be compelled to make good 
the loss to the owner. It is the duty of the government 
to protect property, as it is its duty to protect life and 
liberty. Besides the right to enjoy in peace the property 
he owns, the citizen has the right to acquire more prop- 
erty by labor or by trade or by the exercise of his talents. 
This right of acquiring property is sometimes abused. In 
the pursuit of wealth a man has no moral right to disre- 
gard the just rights of others. Too often men think only 
of themselves and do not hesitate to take for themselves 
what in strict right belongs to some one else. But no 
truly good citizen will do this. A good citizen will follow 
the rule : Render unto others their due. We cannot all 
be rich, but we can all be honest and just. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 

1. A farmer shot and seriously injured a boy who was in his tree 
stealing chestnuts. Could the farmer have been punished for this act? 

2. Is there full enjoyment of all civil rights in your community? 

3. In what way may the newspapers abuse the "freedom of the 
press " ? 

4. What is meant by " religious liberty " ? 

5. Discuss the expression, " Live and let live." 



LESSON IX 
CITIZENSHIP (Continued) 

WHO ARE VOTERS 
** Voters are the uncrowned kings who rule the nation." — Morgan. 

The Right of Suffrage. — Civil rights, we have learned, 
are those rights enjoyed by all citizens, old and young, 
rich and poor, educated and ignorant. Political rights are 
enjoyed only by those citizens who are old enough and 
wise enough to exercise them properly. The greatest 
political right of citizens is the right of suffrage. It has 
been said that the word suffrage originally meant a piece 
of a broken pot, and that in olden times a man was voted 
for by casting for him potsherds, or pieces of broken pot- 
tery. Whatever may be the origin of the word suffrage^ 
the right of suffrage is the right of voting. Voters are 
sometimes called electors^ that is choosers. To vote is to 
express a choice for this or that man for an office, or for 
the enactment of this or that law. What citizens are 
voters or electors 'i Answers to this question will be differ- 
ent in the different States of the Union. In every State, 
however, there are certain qualifications, certain marks of 
fitness, required of a citizen before he can exercise the 
right to vote. These qualifications are : 

(i) Age. — To be a voter one must at least be twenty-one 
years of age. It is thought that a person younger than 

46 



46 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

this does not know enough to vote intelligently, and such 
is usually the fact. It is also true that many who are 
much older than twenty-one do not know enough to vote 
intelligently. 

In France and in Germany and some other countries of 
Europe a citizen is not allowed to vote until he is twenty- 
five years of age. Do you think that would be a good law 
for our country to adopt .'' 

(2) Sex. — In most of the States a voter must be a male 
citizen. In Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Washington, 
and California, women share the right of suffrage equally 
with men. In these six States women may not only 
vote, but they may hold office and otherwise take part in 
public affairs. In many of the States women have the 
right to vote upon school matters. The movement to give 
women the right of suffrage seems to be gaining strength. 

(3) Residence. — A citizen may not vote until he has lived 
a certain time in the State, and in the city or county in 
which he desires to cast his vote. A stranger coming into 
a place should not be allowed to take a part in its govern- 
ment until he has first had time to inform himself upon 
public matters. For this reason every State requires that 
a citizen shall "gain a residence" before he is permitted 
to vote. In some States he must wait two years before 
he can vote, in others one year, while in a few States a 
residence of only three or four months is required to give 
him the right. 

(4) Property ; Poll Tax. — In times past a citizen was j 
not allowed to vote unless he was the owner of a cer- 
tain amount of property, but in our day a man may vote 



LESSON IX 4; 

even though he owns no property at all. In a few States 
there is a poll tax — usually a small tax of one or two 
dollars — that every male citizen of age must pay, no 
matter how poor he may be. If this poll tax is not paid, 
the right to vote is withheld. If we except this poll tax, — 
and even it is fast dying out, — the right to vote is given to 
all without any expense. Sometimes we hear people say 
that no one should be allowed to vote unless he owns some 
property. Do you agree with such people ? 

(5) Education. — In nearly all the States the right to 
vote is given to the ignorant as well as to the educated. A 
person may not be able to read or write his name, and yet 
may vote. Of course such a person seldom knows what 
he is doing ; he cannot make an intelligent choice ; he 
votes either blindly or as some one tells him. Several 
States demand that a citizen shall be able to read and 
write before he is allowed to vote. 

Persons who may not Vote. — There are several classes 
of men who may not vote, although they are old enough 
and have lived in the State as long as is required by law. 
Such people are : 

(i) Aliens. — We have learned what is meant by the 
word alieit. When an alien has been naturalized, that 
is, when he has been made a citizen, he then has the right 
to vote. This is the general rule, although a State may, if 
it sees fit, allow an alien to vote, and it may refuse to allow 
a man who has been naturalized the right to vote; for 
voting is one of the rights of citizenship that are regulated 
by each State, according to its own wishes. 



48 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

(2) Criminals. — A criminal, that is, a person who has 
been convicted of theft, or murder, or arson, or some other 
crime, is not allowed to vote. If a man has been im- 
prisoned for crime, and has been lawfully pardoned, the 
right of suffrage is restored to him with his freedom. 

(3) Idiots. — Idiots, lunatics, and imbeciles are not al- 
lowed to vote. 

(4) Paupers. — As a rule paupers supported in an alms- 
house at the expense of the public are not allowed to vote. 

Registration. — For one who has the right to vote and 
wishes to exercise his right, the first step to be taken is to 
get his name registered. In every election district there 
is a Board of Registrars^ consisting of two or more per- 
sons, whose duty it is to make out a list of the names of 
all citizens in the district who have a right to vote. As a 
rule, one wishing to vote must appear before the Regis- 
trars several weeks before election day and state his name, 
age, birthplace, where he lives, and what his occupation 
is. If the Registrars find that he has all the qualifications 
of a voter, his name will be enrolled upon the voting list 
— he will be registered.^ 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 

1. Would it be wise for the State in which you live to pass a law 
(if it has not already done so) requiring that citizens shall be able to 
read and write before they shall be given the right of suffrage ? 

2. What would be the advantages of woman suffrage? What would 
be the disadvantages ? Are women citizens ? 

3. For what reason is the right of voting withheld from paupers? 

1 In some States registration is required only in cities, or only in large 
cities. 



LESSON IX 49 

4. Do you feel that you could now vote intelligently? 

5. Are Indians and Chinese, living in the United States, allowed 
to vote? 

6. In what large city of the United States do the inhabitants have 
no vote ? 

7. State accurately the qualifications for voting in the State in 
which you live. 

8. Discuss the words elector ^ resident , inhabitant, denizen^ citizen. 



LESS. IN CIV. — 4 



LESSON X 
aXIZENSHIP (Continued) 

ELECTIONS 

" The proudest now is but my peer, 
The highest not more high ; 
To-day of all the weary year, 
A king of men am I. 

" To-day, alike are great and small, 
The nameless and the known ; 
My palace is the people's hall, 
The ballot box my throne! " — Whittier, 

At the Polls. — On election day every good citizen 
should go to the polls and vote. The polls is simply a 
room where several election officers, known as Judges of 
the Election (sometimes called Moderators) and Clerks 
of the Election, meet for the purpose of receiving and 
counting the ballots of the voters of an election district. 
When a voter enters the polls, he gives his name to the 
Judges, who have the registration list before them. When 
his name is found on the list, it is checked off, and an 
envelope containing a ballot is given to him. A ballot is 
a slip or sheet of paper upon which are printed the names 
of the great political parties and the names of the candi- 
dates for election. The voter takes his ballot and passes 
into a small booth where he cannot be seen by any one. 

so 



LESSON X 



51 



In the booth he finds writing material and a shelf or desk 
on which he may write. If he wishes to vote for all the 
candidates of a certain party, he makes a cross mark X 
opposite the name of that party. This is called voting 
"a straight ticket." If he wishes to vote for candidates 
without respect to party, he must make separate cross 




A TOLLING BOOTH 



marks opposite the name of each candidate for whom he 
wishes to vote. This is called " splitting the ballot." 
After his ballot has been properly marked the voter 
returns to the place where the Judges sit, and his ballot 
is put into a large box which is usually made of glass. 

The above is the method of voting followed in most 
States. It is known as the "Australian System," because 



52 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

it was first adopted in Australia. It is the best method 
that has thus far been tried. A long time ago men used 
to vote by calling out in a loud voice the name of their 
favorite candidate. But this method often led to quarrels 
and fights, and it had to be abandoned. The open ballot 
was then tried. By this method the voter cast his ballot 
before the judges and bystanders in such an open way 
that any one who desired could see how he had voted. 
This led to bribery. A sum of money would be given the 
voter for voting in a certain way, and the man who gave 
him the money would follow him up to the polls, and 
watch him to see that he voted the way he was paid to 
vote. The open ballot also led to intimidation. The 
voter was frequently afraid to vote the way he would like 
to, lest he might offend an employer or some one else 
whom he could ill afford to offend. For such reasons as 
these voting by open ballot grew unpopular, and the 
Australian or secret ballot system was adopted. This 
system has its disadvantages. It does not encourage men 
to come out openly and fearlessly and announce their 
convictions. Under the secret ballot law a man by guard- 
ing his tongue and not letting any one know how he votes, 
may deprive the community of the influence of his ex- 
ample. It would be better if we could always know how 
good citizens vote. The great point in favor of the secret 
ballot is that it helps to do away with bribery. Under the 
Australian System it is of little use to give the voter 
money to vote in a certain way, for there is no way to 
follow him up and see if he votes as he promises. If the 
secret ballot does prevent bribery, then every State ought 



LESSON X 53 

to have it, for bribery is one of the worst evils in politics. 
A man who gives a bribe to his fellow-citizen, not only 
debases that citizen, but he debauches society. A bribe 
giver is a public enemy. What shall we say of a bribe 
taker ? Is he better or worse than a bribe giver? 

Counting the Vote ; Majority — Plurality. — Immedi- 
ately after the polls are closed the counting of the votes 
begins. The counting is done openly in the presence of 
a number of people. The candidate who gets the largest 
number of votes is declared elected. Sometimes a ma- 
jority of the votes is required to elect. By a majority is 
meant more than half of all the votes cast. It often hap- 
pens when there are three or more candidates for the 
same office that no one gets a majority of all the votes. 
In such cases the one who gets the highest number of 
votes is the successful candidate, although that number 
is less than half. Election by the highest number of votes 
is called " Election hy plurality.'' In some States a candi- 
date must get a majority of votes, or he cannot be declared 
elected. Thus, in the State of New Hampshire, the can- 
didate for governor must receive a majority of the votes 
cast. If no one receives a majority, the election of a gov- 
ernor is left to the legislature of the State. 

The Right of holding Office. — Besides the right of choos- 
ing officers to conduct government, it is the right of the 
American citizen to hold office. The business of govern- 
ment requires the service of a very large number of people. 
In the counties there must be road commissioners, school 
trustees, tax collectors, sheriffs. In a city there must be 
a mayor and councilmen and a very long list of officials. 



54 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

In the State there must be a governor with his secretaries, 
and the legislature with its senators and delegates. In 
the nation there is the President with his cabinet and 
thousands of assistants. It would take many pages 
merely to name the different offices of the different gov- 
ernments. Now it is the boast of the American citizen 
that, no matter what his rank may be, he has the right to 
hold any of these offices. Any boy born in the United 
States may hope to become President. It is true that 
only four or five of the millions of young Americans now 
living can ever be President, yet it is also true that those 
boys who will be our future Presidents may come from 
the lower walks of life. We have had as President of the 
United States a man whose early occupation was that of a 
tailor, and who did not learn to write until after he was 
married. It is a great honor to be chosen to a position 
of trust and power by one's , fellow-citizens. The great 
trouble is men often do mean and dishonest things to get 
into office, and then after they are in the office they dis- 
grace it by their selfishness and corruption. It should be 
the ambition of every American youth to be worthy of 
office. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 

1. Smith, Jones, and Brown are candidates for an office. Smith 
gets 5000 votes, Jones 4000 votes, and Brown 3000 votes. Does Smith 
get a majority or a plurality of votes? What is the smallest number 
of votes that would elect in this case if a majority were required ? What ,, 
does the word minority mean? 1 

2. Discuss the evil effects of bribery. 

3. Who said " I would rather be right than be President"? 

4. Should the office seek the man, or the man the office ? 



LESSON X 55 

5. Do you know any candidates for office ? Are they men well quali- 
fied for the positions they are seeking? 

6. " A weapon that comes down as still 

As snowflakes fall upon the sod ; 
But executes a freeman's will 

As lightning does the will of God." 

What is the "weapon"? Memorize the quotation. 

7. Bound the election district or precinct in which you live. 

8. Secure, if you can, a ballot used at an election, and mark it as 
you would if you were going to vote. 

9. Discuss methods of preventing bribery. Would you vote for a 
man who would give bribes ? 

10. Are voting machines used to any extent in your State ? 



LESSON XI 
CITIZENSHIP (Concluded) 

DUTIES OF CITIZENS 

'* Do what conscience says is right, 
Do what reason says is best, 
Do with all your mind and might, 
Do your duty and be blest." 

A Few Words about Duty. — For several lessons we 
have been discussing the rights of citizens ; in this lesson 
we shall speak of a few of the duties of citizens. We are 
all inclined to think too much of our rights and too little 
of our duties. We should never forget that for every right 
we enjoy there is a corresponding duty. A right has been 
called the reward of a duty fulfilled, and this is the way 
to regard duty. After we have done our duty, then we 
may claim our rights ; after we have fulfilled the duties of 
citizenship, we may in good conscience claim our rights as 
citizens. Government cannot give to us more than we 
give to it. If we are careless or selfish in respect to our 
duties to our government, we may be sure that it will not 
have so many blessings for us as it would have if we were 
watchful and faithful in our duty. Let us now learn what 
duty requires of all good citizens. 

Obedience to the Law. — The first duty of a citizen is to 
obey the laws of his country. Without obedience to law 

56 



LESSON XI 57 

there can be no such thing as good government. Whether 
in the home, in the school, or in the State, the violation of 
law is attended with some kind of punishment. When a 
law of the State is broken, he who breaks it may be fined, 
that is, he may be compelled to give up a sum of money, 
or he may be imprisoned, or he may be both fined and im- 
prisoned. In the case of murder, he who takes the life of 
another may be compelled to give up his own life. But I 
do not wish to hold up the punishments of the law before 
you in order to frighten you. I do not want you to obey 
the law simply because you are afraid of the punishment 
that would follow if you should break it. People who 
obey a law through the sense of fear are likely to break 
it if they think they will not be discovered. Such people 
are satisfied if they can keep out of jail. It is against the 
law to give a man money for his vote ; yet how many citi- 
zens violate this law simply because they run but little risk 
of being detected and punished ! A bribe giver is no less 
a criminal because he escapes punishment. Laws should 
be obeyed because it is a duty to obey them. It is our 
right to seek the protection of the law ; it. is our duty to 
do the bidding of the law. 

Defense of One's Country. — A most serious duty of the 
citizen to his government is to defend it against its ene- 
mies. You boys may at some time in your life be called 
upon to take up arms and fight for your country. If such 
a time should come, you should not flinch, but should go 
forth bravely to the battle field, prepared to lay down 
your life, if necessary. But you should not wish for war 
or try to stir up strife. The good citizen will try to avoid 



58 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

war. Men and nations should live at peace with each 
other; war is never right unless it is waged for the pur- 
pose of making the world better in the end. 

Earning a Living. — Every citizen should try to earn an 
honest living for himself and those dependent upon him. 
A man who does not work is a burden upon the com- 
munity. What he eats and wears is produced by the labor 
of other people. Now, an able-bodied man who lives 
upon the labor of others loses his own self-respect and 
deserves to lose the respect of others. Hence, a good 
citizen will refuse to eat bread that he has not earned, if it 
is possible for him to earn bread for himself. Sometimes 
men cannot earn their own living, they cannot find work 
to do. When this is the case, there is something wrong 
somewhere, and it is the duty of good citizens to try to 
discover where the wrong is and to take measures to rem- 
edy the wrong. In a land of plenty no strong-armed man, 
willing to work, ought to be compelled to go hungry. 

Attention to Public Affairs. — It is the duty of every citi- 
zen to take an active part in public affairs. He should 
not only vote for good men and good principles, but he 
should try to get other people to vote for good men and 
good principles. In some countries, as in Siam and 
Russia, there are hereditary rulers who are above the 
people, and who govern according to their own notions 
of right and wrong. Such rulers command; the people 
obey. In our country, however, we have no such rulers. 
Here the people must govern themselves. If we have 
good government, the people are to be thanked for it ; if 
we have bad government, it is the people's fault. This is 



LESSON XI 59 

why it is the duty of every citizen to do all he can to secure 
good government. This is why every citizen should take 
a part in politics. 

Duty of studying Political Questions. — Before you enter 
politics, however, you should make a careful study of politi- 
cal questions. There are several great political parties in 
this country. If you wish to cast your vote to the best 
advantage, you must vote for the candidates and principles 
of one of these great parties. But before you cast your 
vote for a party, you should learn what that party wishes 
to accomplish ; before you vote, you should know what 
you are voting for. 

While you are at school you may prepare yourselves to 
vote in an intelligent manner when you come of age. You 
may do this in two ways, — by reading and by discussion. 
Read history. You cannot understand the present with- 
out understanding the past. Read the lives of great men. 
The founders of our government were unselfish men. 
Read what they wrote about government and learn what 
they did for their country. Read the history of political 
parties and study their platforms. Read works upon gov- 
ernment. Read good newspapers and inform yourselves 
of the political questions of the day. 

But reading is not enough. Along with reading must 
go discussion. Our government is founded upon free and 
open discussion. This is why citizens are guaranteed 
freedom of speech. By talking over a question in a good- 
natured way with friends we learn a number of things. 
In the first place, we learn more about the question under 
discussion. We almost always find that our friend knows 



60 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

something about it that we did not know. Then we learn 
to express our thoughts more clearly and forcibly. We 
never know a thing well enough until we can tell it to 
some one else. Discussion also teaches us to have respect 
for the opinions of other people ; and this is very good for 
us. Above all, discussion is good because it leads to the 
truth. 

When there are a number of people to take part, the 
best way to conduct a discussion is through the debate. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 

1. Can you name a war that was a blessing to mankind? One that 
was a curse ? 

2. Would you fight for your country, even if you thought it was in 
the wrong? 

3. Should a citizen obey a bad law ? Who shall judge whether a 
law is bad or good ? 

4. Explain how a single vote may decide the result of an election. 

5. What are some of the things a politician must do? 



LESSON XII 

TAXATION 

" If we live in a country not wholly barbarous, we cannot escape tax, 
and it is the fate of man to bear his proportion of its burdens in propor- 
tion to his expense, property, and consumption." — D. A. Wells * 

Government supported by Taxes. — In this lesson we 
shall speak of a duty that all citizens must perform, — 
the duty of paying taxes to the government. It requires 
a vast amount of money to meet the expenses of govern- 
ment. Salaries have to be paid to officials, large public 
buildings have to be erected, fleets and armies have to be 
fitted out, charities have to be supported. The money 
required for all this comes from the pockets of the citizens 
whom the government protects. The government raises 
money by means of a tax. A tax is a sum of money col- 
lected from citizens for the support of the government. 
It is plain that each citizen ought to be taxed according to 
his means. A man who is very poor ought not to be com- 
pelled to pay so much as a man who is very rich. Yet it 
is not easy to lay taxes justly. The rule generally followed 
in laying taxes is this : Taxes are laid on property, and the 
more property a man owns, the greater must be his share 
of the tax. Property is of two kinds, real property and 
personal property. Real property consists of lands and 
buildings and growing crops. Personal property is prop- 

6i 



62 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

erty that the owner can carry with him from place to 
place; as horses, furniture, money, bonds. 

How each Taxpayer's Share is Determined. — A tax 
collector presents to your father a tax bill, calling for, let 
us say, $33.50. How was this bill made out.-* How was 
it determined that your father should pay to the support of 
the government just $33.50, no more, no less ? Let us try 
to get an answer to this question. 

Let us suppose that you live in a town, and that it is 
your town government that has sent the bill. The first 
step taken is to determine how much money is needed. 
It is found that the town needs 

For its schools, police, streets, water works, and other ex- 
penses of Town Government $40,000 

For taxes due to the County Government 6,000 

For taxes due to the State Government 4,000 

Total amount of taxes to be raised $50,000 

This $50,000 must be paid by the property owners of 
the town. In order to distribute the burden fairly, officers 
called Assessors visit all the houses and places of business 
in the town, and place upon every man's property what 
they think is a fair valuation. Thus they find that A has 
a house worth $3000 and furniture worth $500, or prop- 
erty worth in all $3500. B is found to own a factory 
worth $75,000 and goods worth $25,000. He is, therefore, 
assessed at $100,000. C owns building lots worth $2000 
and horses and carriages worth $500. C's property, there- 
fore, is put down on the Assessors* list at $2500. D owns 
a little house which the Assessor thinks is worth $400; 



LESSON XII 63 

his furniture is so scanty that no value is put upon it, 
and it escapes taxation. Your father's property, we will 
suppose, is placed on the Assessors' list at $1675. In 
this way the value of the property of every taxpayer in 
town is estimated by the Assessors and put upon the 
assessment list. By adding together the fortunes of A, 
B, C, D, etc., the entire value of all the property in the 
town is found. Let us suppose that this amounts to 
1^2,500,000. You remember that the amount to be raised 
by taxation is $50,000. Now if property worth ;?2, 500,000 
must pay $50,000 in taxes, property worth one dollar must 
pay two cents in taxes. Every man in the town, there- 
fore, must pay two cents in taxes for every dollar's worth 
of property he owns. This two cents, or 2%, or .02 is 
called the rate of taxation. 

A will pay . . $3,500 x .02 . . $70.00 in taxes, 
B will pay . . 100,000 x .02 . . 2000.00 in taxes. 

You now see why your father's tax bill is $33.50. 

The Collection of Taxes. — After the Assessor comes the 
Tax Collector. This officer collects the taxes from the 
owners of property and turns it over to the treasury of 
the town government. The Town Treasurer sends to 
the County Treasurer the share that belongs to the 
county, and to the State Treasurer the share that belongs 
to the State, and retains what is left for the expenses of 
the town government. When a man refuses or neglects 
to pay his tax, the law will compel him to pay. The Tax 
Collector must collect the taxes, even if he is obliged to 
sell the property to get them. When land is sold for 



64 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

taxes, the owner may regain the land by paying to the 
purchaser within a specified time the amount of the taxes 
with interest. 

Exemption. — This word means "freedom from a bur- 
den or charge." Certain kinds of property are free from 
the burden of taxation. Thus, churches, cemeteries, school- 
houses, free libraries, charitable institutions, and all pub- 
lic buildings are exempt from taxation ; likewise a man's 
household furniture when it is worth less than a hundred 
dollars, in many States, is not taxed. The laws of some 
States allow to soldiers who fought for the Union in the 
Civil War an exemption on property to the amount of one 
thousand dollars. 

**Tax Dodgers.'* — Men sometimes avoid paying their 
just taxes. They will hide such property as they can 
hide; they will lie about the value of their property; 
they will invest their money in such a way that the 
Tax Collector cannot reach it. Such men are called " tax 
dodgers," and they are not good citizens. It is not the 
part of good citizenship to defraud the government of its 
taxes. Government protects men in the enjoyment of 
their property, and they ought to be willing to give it 
a hearty and ungrudging support. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 

I . When a property owner thinks his property has been assessed too 
high, he may complain to the Assessors, and if these officers think his 
complaint is just, they will reduce the assessment. Suppose the owner 
thinks his property has been assessed too low ; should he go to the 
Assessors and request them to make the assessment larger.'' If a man 
should send you a bill for three dollars when you know you owe him 



LESSON XII 65 

five dollars, would you call his attention to the mistake? Should we 
be as honest with the government as we are with our neighbors? 

2. How is the money for the support of your school raised? Who is 
the largest taxpayer in your school district? Does he get more benefit 
from the government than any other man in the district? 

3. Name some of the returns taxpayers get for the money they pay 
to the government. 

4. Is wheat in a barn real property or personal property? 

5. What is the tax rate in your town? In your county? In your 
State? 

6. Name the kinds of property in your State that are exempt from 
taxation. 

LESS. IN CIV. — c 



LESSON XIII 

TAXATION (Continued) 

" The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, 

imposts, and excises." — Constitittion of the United States, 

Duties and Excises. — In our last lesson we learned how 
taxes are raised for the support of the town, city, county, 
and State governments. We learned that the expenses of 
these governments for the most part are met by laying a 
direct tax upon property. But the great government of the 
United States, which requires over ^800,000,000 a year 
for expenses, is not supported by a direct property tax. It 
is supported mostly by indirect taxation. What is meant 
by indirect taxation will be explained presently. The in- 
direct taxes collected by the government which has its 
capital at Washington, are either duties or excises. A 
duty is a tax or tariff laid upon goods that are imported 
into this country from foreign countries. This tax is paid 
to government officers by the merchant who imports the 
goods. But the merchant does not bear the burden of the 
tax. If he is compelled to pay a duty of 75 cents per 
yard upon silk which he imports from France, this 75 
cents is added to the first cost. If, without a duty, he 
could sell his customers French silk for ^1.50 per yard at 
a profit of 10%, with a duty of 75 cents, he sells them the 

66 



LESSON XIII fj 

silk for ;?2.32 per yard. It is, therefore, the customers 
who pay this duty, or tax. Excises are taxes paid by man- 
ufacturers upon goods made in this country. Thus the 
taxes upon liquors, tobacco, and cigars are excises. An 
excise tax, like a duty, is paid by one person, but the bur- 
den is usually shifted to another. If a tobacco manufac- 
turer is compelled to pay a tax of 50 cents upon every box 
of cigars he makes, he counts this as a part of the cost, 
and charges his customers accordingly. Duties and ex- 
cises are called indirect taxes, because the real burden of 
these taxes does not fall directly upon the people who pay 
them, but indirectly upon some one else. Excises and 
duties are laid upon such articles as beer, tobacco, sugar, 
tea, coffee, woolen goods, cotton goods, leather, iron, tin, 
etc. From this we see that everybody who wears clothes 
and consumes food, that is, the whole population, contrib- 
utes something to the support of the National Govern- 
ment. 

The Income Tax. — Besides the general property tax, 
and duties and excises, there are several other kinds of 
taxes that we must mention. Important among these is 
the income tax. An income tax is laid upon a man's sal- 
ary, or upon the profits of his business, without reference 
to the amount of property he owns. A certain rate is de- 
termined upon by the government, and every man must 
pay according to his income. If the rate is 3%, and his 
salary or the profit of his business is $3000, then he must 
pay $<^o as his income tax. A progressive income tax is 
one where the rate grows larger with the income. Thus 
the rate might be 3% for all incomes under $5000; 4% for 



68 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

all incomes between ;^5ooo and $10,000; 5% for all in- 
comes between ;^io,ooo and ;^5o,ooo; 8% for incomes 
between $50,000 and $100,000; 10% for all incomes over 
$100,000. Do you think a progressive income tax is just ? 

Licenses ; Fees. — A license is a privilege granted by a 
government permitting one to engage in a certain occupa- 
tion or to perform a certain act. For granting a license 
government usually charges a sum of money. The liquor 
license permits the holder to sell liquor; the merchant's 
license permits the sale of goods; the marriage license 
permits the marriage of the couple to whom it is granted. 
A fee is a small sum paid to an officer of the government 
for the performance of some public service. Thus if you 
wish to get a deed to land properly recorded, you will 
have to pay the recording officer a small fee. 

Poll Tax. — This word poll means head ; a poll tax, 
therefore, is a tax upon the man and not upon property. 
It is usually a small sum, not exceeding three dollars for 
each man. A male citizen above the age of twenty-one ; 
must pay this tax, although he has no property at all. Not ■ 
all States do have a poll tax, yet usually where there is 
such a tax, it must be paid before the citizen is allowed to 
vote. The poll tax is not popular in the United States, 
and in some of the States it is forbidden entirely. 

Franchises. — A government sometimes adds to its reve- 
nue by the sale of its franchises. A franchise is a particu- 
lar right given to a person or a body of persons. Very 
often governments have valuable franchises to dispose of. 
For instance, the right to use the streets of a city for a 
railway is very valuable ; the right to lay pipes for sup^ 



LESSON XIII 69 

plying a city with gas is a desirable franchise. In one 
of our large cities every street car company is compelled to 
pay 9% of its gross earnings into the city treasury. Gov- 
ernments should watch their franchises with a jealous eye, 
and should not part with them without making a good 
bargain for the public. Too often when a franchise is 
granted the bargain is made in the interest of private 
parties. 

Eminent Domain. — Closely related to the government's 
right of taxation, is its right of "eminent domain." By 
this is meant its right to take private property for public 
uses. If the government wishes to use your house for a 
post office, or if it desires to run a street through your 
garden, or a road through your field, you have not the 
power to prevent it. Yet the government must pay you a 
fair price for your property, and it must not compel you to 
part with it unless it can be shown that it is for the public 
good that you should do so. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 

1. Do all citizens have to pay taxes? Think well before you 
answer this question. 

2. What kind of taxes are paid without those who pay them seem- 
ing to know it ? 

;i. Has taxation ever been a cause of war? 

4. How are churches supported? 

5. Where are duties collected? 

6. Is a poll tax a just tax? Is there a poll tax in your State? 

7. What is meant by " smuggling " ? 

8. Is an income tax that exempts all incomes under $1000 just? 

9. For what do people pay taxes most cheerfully? 
10. How may a city acquire land for a park? 



LESSON XIV 
SEVERAL TERMS EXPLAINED 

" Self-government stimulates the interest of the people in the affairs 
of their neighborhood, sustains local political life, educates the citizen 
in the daily round of civic duty." — James Bryce. 

*i A representative government, made responsible at short periods of 
election, produces the greatest sum of happiness to mankind." — Thomas 
Jefferson. 

Self-Government. — In this lesson I wish you to learn 
the meaning of several words that you often meet with 
when reading of government. The first word discussed 
shall be ''self-government." This word does not mean 
exactly self-control or government of self. Let us see 
what it does mean. 

In a family the father and mother govern, the other 
members obey. The children in a family do not choose 
their governors, and they do not take part in making the 
rules of the household. And so it is in the schoolroom. 
There the teacher governs and the pupils obey. The pu- 
pils have no voice in the choice of the teacher, they take 
no part in making the rules of the school, they cannot set 
aside the school government. Government is given to 
them by a power above them. Now, in the government of 
the town, the city, the State, and the Nation, all this is 
changed. In these governments the people obey no power 

70 



LESSON XIV 71 

outside of and above themselves ; they obey only the laws 
that they themselves make and the officers of government 
that they themselves choose. In other words, they govern 
themselves. Where the whole number of adult male citi- 
zens, then, take a part in government, where they make 
their own laws, lay their own taxes, elect their own rulers, 
there is self-government. And a dangerous and difficult 
and precious thing it is. Self-government is the greatest 
task ever undertaken by men. It was tried by the people 
of Greece and Rome in ancient times, but through the sel- 
fishness and ambition of men it failed. A little more than 
a hundred years ago, our forefathers undertook the task. 
By exercising wisdom and forbearance and courage, they 
succeeded in forming a government that should rest upon 
the will of the people. This government has come down 
to us, and is to-day in our keeping. Thus far we have 
proven ourselves worthy of the trust. We make mistakes, 
but, take it all in all, we govern ourselves very well. In a 
few years government will be in the hands of you who are 
in school. Will you choose to govern yourselves, or will 
you prefer to have a king, perhaps a tyrant, to rule over 
you ? Could you now for one hour govern yourselves in 
the schoolroom .? 

Representative Government. — Where the people who 
compose a government are few in number, as in some 
of the cantons of Switzerland and towns of New Eng- 
land, all can meet in a body and discuss public affairs, 
enact laws, and elect officers. In such governments every 
citizen has a direct voice in the management of public 
affairs. Where all the people meet at one place for the 



72 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

purpose of transacting the business of government, there 
is said to be a pure democracy. The word democracy 
means government by the people. But you can see that a 
large city or a State cannot be a pure democracy, for all 
the citizens of a large city or of a State cannot meet at one 
place. How, then, can all the people of a State have a 
voice in the making of a law, or take part in the man- 
agement of their government? They cannot take part 
directly, but they may indirectly in the following way : 

A number of citizens may choose one of their number 
to act in their stead ; the citizens of a town or of a county 
may choose one or two of its citizens to meet with other 
citizens chosen in the same way from other towns and 
counties. If there are fifty counties in a State, and the 
citizens of each county, instead of going themselves, elect 
two of their number to go to the capital of the State for the 
purpose of making laws, the lawmaking body of the State 
will consist of one hundred men. This small body will act 
in the name of several hundreds of thousands of people, 
and the laws it passes will be as binding as if they had been 
passed by all the people coming together in an immense 
throng. A man who acts in the place of and with the 
authority of other men represents those men, and is called 
their representative ; and governments that are conducted 
by a few people chosen to act in the name of all the peo- 
ple are representative governments. 

All the governments, with one exception, which we shall 
study hereafter, are representative governments. Strictly 
speaking, they are representative democracies, that is, they 
are governments in which the people rule through their 



LESSON XIV 73 

representatives. Citizens who stay at home, and send 
others to represent them in public affairs, are called the 
constituents of those who are sent. This question is often 
discussed : Should the representative act according to the 
wishes of his constituents ? 

The Three Departments of Government. — In all good 
and free governments there is a division of power ; or, to 
state the fact in another way, the work of government 
is distributed among different sets of men. There is one 
set of men who have the right to make the laws. This is 
called the legislative, or lawmaking branch of government. 
There is another set of men who decide what the meaning 
of the law is, who are guilty of breaking it, and what pun- 
ishment shall follow. These men are called judges, and 
they exercise th.& judicial power of government. After the 
legislative department has made a law, and the judicial 
department has made its decision, a third department en- 
forces the law. This is the executive department. The 
three departments of government, therefore, are, first, the 
legislative^ or lawmaking department ; second, ^^ judicial 
department ; and, third, the executive, or law-enforcing de- 
partment. The government of the home and school have 
not this division of powers. The teacher may make a 
rule, decide who has broken it, and punish the offender, 
thus exercising all three of the powers of government. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 

1. What countries in the world besides our own enjoy self-govern- 
ment ? 

2. What is a monarchy? Name some of the great monarchs of the 
world. 



74 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

3. Do you think it would be wise to intrust the lawmaking power of 
the school to pupils? The judicial power? The executive power? 

4. What reason can you give for the division of the power of gov- 
ernment? 

5. Elect one of your schoolmates to represent the school in a spell- 
ing contest. One to represent the school in a debate. 

6. What is an aristocracy? 

7. You will doubtless at some time find people who do not believe 
in a democracy. What arguments will you advance in its favor? 

8. The Recall. — In many cities and in several States the voters 
have reserved for themselves the power to deprive an officer of his office 
before his term has expired if he does not discharge his duties in the 
way the voters think he ought to discharge them. This power is called 
the "recall." Do you think officers should be recalled before their 
term of office ends ? (See hnpeachment, page 130.) 



LESSON XV 

TOWN GOVERNMENT 

"The town governments of New England proved themselves the 
wisest invention ever devised by the wit of man for the perfect exercise 
of self-government and for its preservation." — Thomas Jefferson. 

Early Town Government in New England. — In New 

England, after you- pass from the governments of the 
home and of the school, the government that you meet 
with first, if you do not live in a city, is that of the town. 
Town government is an interesting study even to those 
who do not live in New England, for it is a very old form 
of government, and it is one that is best fitted to train 
men in the practice of citizenship. 

If we trace our ancestors back to their homes in Eng- 
land, or further back to their homes upon the continent of 
Europe, where they first lived, we shall find that the town 
was their unit of government. A town, or tun (toon), in 
the earliest times was a cluster of farmers' dwellings, 
barns, and cattle sheds, such as may be seen to-day in 
many parts of Germany. Around the tun was either a 
wall of earth or a dense hedge, and outside, encircling the 
mound or hedge, was a ditch. The tun was thus fortified 
against its foes. In the center of the inclosure, usually 
under a large tree, was held the tun moot^ or meeting of 

75 



76 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

all the freemen of the tun. At this moot newcomers were 
admitted to dwell within the tun, lands were granted to 
freemen, *' strife of farmer and farmer was settled," laws 
for the government of the tun were passed, and officers 
to execute those laws were elected. In the tun moot, 
indeed, were done most of the things that any government 
can rightly do, and these things were done by the people 
themselves meeting in a body. Two thousand years ago 
our forefathers governed themselves in the tun moot in 
the wilds of Germany; when they settled in England 
fifteen hundred years ago they carried the tun moot with 
them ; and when, nearly three hundred years ago, the 
Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, they at once came together 
in tun moot, or town meeting, for the purpose of transact- 
ing public affairs. 

The Englishmen who first settled in New England were 
a very religious people. One of the first things they did 
in a new settlement was to build a church in some place 
convenient for all to attend. This church was called a 
meetinghouse, and this was a good name for it, for it was 
a common meeting place for all in the settlement. The 
congregation that met in it on the Sabbath as worshipers 
would meet in it on a week day as citizens and transact 
public affairs. Thus government in New England cen- 
tered around a church. A congregation of churchgoers 
was organized as a government, and this government was 
called a town. When a town became so large in extent 
that it was inconvenient for all to attend church, a new 
church was built and a new town was organized. You 
rarely find a town in New England so large that a person 



LESSON XV yy 

cannot with convenience attend a church situated in its 
center. Every male citizen above twenty-one years of age 
who attended the church — and everybody was required 
to go to church — had the right to go to the meeting- 
house and take part in the town meetings. Voters are 
no longer required to attend church, but in other respects 
the town governments of New England to-day are almost 
exactly like those of the early years of our history. 

The Town Meeting. — The most important feature of 
the town government is the town meeting. Once a year 
all the qualified voters of the town meet together to dis- 
cuss measures relating to town affairs, and to take action 
thereon. The meeting is no longer held in a church, but 
in the townhouse, or town/tall. When the people have 
assembled, the town clerk calls them to order, and states 
the purposes for which the meeting was called. A mod- 
erator is then chosen to preside over the meeting, and 
business proceeds according to Parliamentary rules. In a 
town meeting we see pure democracy at work. Instead 
of sending men to conduct affairs for them, as in a repre- 
sentative government, the people are there in person. 
Young and '^Id, rich and poor, take part in the proceed- 
ings, and any citizen present may exert the full force 
of his character and influence. Every measure that is 
brought up is freely discussed and criticised. Those in 
favor of the measure state their argument for it; those 
opposed to it state their objections. When the discussion 
is at an end a vote is taken, and whatever the result may 
be all present feel that the will of the people has been 
expressed. Ail matters relating to the public affairs of 



78 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

the town are settled. The most important things done 
are these: 

(i) The rate of taxation is fixed. Money is appropri- 
ated for the schools, for the care of the roads, for the 
support of the poor, for the salaries of officers, and for 
other necessary expenses. 

(2) By-laws are passed for the regulation of local mat- 
ters. The word by originally meant town ; hence a by-law 
is a town law. A law passed in town meeting forbidding 
the use of the sidewalks of the town for bicycling is an 
example of a by-law. 

(3) Town officers are elected. It would be impossible 
for all the people of a town to meet together every day 
for the transaction of public business. For this reason at 
the annual town meeting officers are elected to manage the 
affairs of the town in the name of the people for one year. 

Town Officers : 

(i) The Selectmen. — The general management of town 
affairs during the year is placed in the hands of three, or 
five, or seven, or nine citizens, called Selectmen. These 
officers carry into effect the measures passed at the town 
meeting. They supervise the laying out of roads ; they 
grant Hcenses ; they care for the poor; they take meas- 
ures to abate nuisances, check the advance of contagious 
diseases, and otherwise preserve the health of the town ; 
they listen to complaints against the management of 
town affairs ; they represent the town in court when it is 
sued ; they make out the warrant when a special town 
meeting is to be called. 



LESSON XV 79 

(2) The Tow7t Clerk. — This officer has numerous duties. 
We have seen that it is he who calls the town meeting to 
order. He must always be present at a town meeting, 
and keep a record of the proceedings. In addition to 
this he keeps a record of the births, marriages, and deaths 
in the town, and grants certificates to those wishing to 
marry. In fact, most matters of town record are in his 
keeping. 

(3) Assessors. — The duty of these officers was spoken 
of under the subject of taxation. They make out a list of 
the taxpayers of the town, and place an estimate upon 
value of their property. The selectmen themselves may 
act as assessors, or they may appoint men to act in their 
stead. 

(4) Tax Collectors. — These officers also have been men- 
tioned. They take the list made out by assessors and 
gather the taxes from the people. 

(5) Town Treasurer. — The duties of this officer have 
been described in Lesson XII. The treasurer cannot pay 
out any money from the treasury without an order from 
the selectmen. 

(6) Overseers of the Poor. — These officers have charge 
of the town almshouse, and they give relief to the deserv- 
ing poor. 

(7) The School Committee. — The duties of this com- 
mittee have been described in your study of the govern- 
ment of the school. In large towns where there are a 
number of schools the School Committee, or Board of 
Education, appoints a Superintendent of Schools. This 
officer devotes his time to grading the schools properly, 



8o LESSONS IN CIVICS 

and trying to improve them by giving aid and counsel to 
the teachers. 

(8) Constables. — These are peace officers, and every 
town has one or more of them. They arrest for crime, 
and assist the selectmen in executing the law. In some 
towns the constables serve as tax collectors. 

(9) Surveyors of Highways. — These officers inspect 
roads and bridges, and are responsible for keeping them 
in repair. 

(10) Fence Viewers. — These officers settle disputes that 
may arise between neighbors about partition fences or walls. 

(11) Field Drivers. — When cows, or horses, or other 
animals are found wandering about the town the field 
driver puts them into a pound, and keeps them until their 
rightful owner is found. 

This list of officers is not complete, yet it is long enough 
to show that a great many people take part in the govern- 
ment of a town. It is quite possible that there are towns 
in which there is hardly one intelligent citizen who has 
not sometime in his life held public office. This general 
participation in the business of government does much 
to make the people of New England a most wide-awake 
and progressive body of citizens. 

Nothing has been said in reference to the administra- 
tion of justice in a New England town, for the reason that 
justice is rather an affair of the State than of the town ; 
and what you need to know on this point will be explained 
when we come to describe the judicial department of the 
State government. 



LESSON XV 8l 

One thing about town government not yet mentioned 
deserves particular attention. In New England, towns 
have the honor of being represented in the legislature of 
the State. In the other States of the Union representa- 
tives to the State legislature are sent by counties. 

QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR WORK 

1. A special town meeting may be held upon a warrant from the 
selectmen. Obtain from the town clerk a copy of such a warrant, and, 
following the form used, make out a warrant for calling a meeting to 
discuss the question of establishing a town library. Organize your 
class as a town meeting. It would be wise to elect your teacher as 
moderator. Discuss, as in a town meeting, the following topics : 

(a) Advantages of a public library. 
(d) A good location for a library building. 
(c) The probable cost of the library. 
(d) Whether public sentiment favors a library. 

After a full discussion vote upon the question. 

2. What kind of men make good selectmen? What should be the 
qualifications of a good town clerk? 

3. What are the boundaries of the town in which you live? When 
was your town organized? Is there a church near its center? 

4. Make out a list of the names of all who now hold town offices. 

5. Should boys and girls be allowed to take part in town meetings? 
Are they represented there? 

6. In what things should a town try to excel? In what does your 
town excel? 

7. How much money is raised by taxation in your town? What is 
the tax rate? Is this higher or lower than the rate in neighboring 
towns ? 

LESS. IN CIV. — 6 



LESSON XVI 

THE COUNTY 

"The Virginia county was the most perfect reproduction of the 
English shire to be found in America." — Macy. 

The Virginia County. — If you live on a farm, or in a 
small village that has no government of its own, the gov- 
ernment that you will take the most direct interest in will 
be either that of the county, or that of the town, or that 
of the township. If you live in a Southern State or in a 
Western State, the government that will come closest to 
you in your daily life will be that of the county. 

County government, like town government, was brought 
to America from England. In earliest times England con- 
sisted of many independent kingdoms, each ruled by its 
own king. When war arose between two kings, — and 
war was constantly arising, — the conqueror took posses- 
sion of the conquered kingdom and made of its ruler an 
under king. In the course of time all the small kingdoms 
were brought under the rule of one king — the king of 
England. The under kings remained at the head of their 
little governments, but their rank and their power were 
gone. They were no longer kings but counts, or assistants 
of the king, and the land they governed were counties. 
The business of the county government, principally, was 
to hold the county court and to collect taxes for the king. 

82 



LESSON XVI 83 

When the Virginia colonists settled at Jamestown, in 1607, 
they found it convenient to organize new settlements as 
counties, after the manner of those in the old country. In 
the center of the county was held the County Court. The 
place where the court was held became the county seat, or 
capital of the county. In every county seat there was 
a building known as the courthouse, where most of the 
business of the county government was transacted. The 
county government in Virginia and other Southern colo- 
nies was quire different in olden times from what it is 
to-day. But in several respects it was like the county 
government of to-day. First, it was a representative gov- 
ernment. The public business of the county was not man- 
aged by the people directly, as in a New England town, 
but by officers who acted in the name and in the place of 
the people. Second, it was the county in Virginia that 
sent representatives to the Colonial Legislature, just as 
to-day, in Southern States, it is the county that sends 
representatives to the State Legislature. Third, the 
colonial county, like the county of our own time, had its 
county seat and county courthouse. We shall now learn 
something of the government of the county as it is found 
in the Southern States. 

County Officers : 

(i) The County Commissioners. — Most of the public 
business of the county is done by a Board of County 
Commissioners. This Board consists of three men — 
sometimes ot a larger number — elected by the people of 
the county to serve for 3. tenia of from one to four years. 



84 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

The powers and duties of the County Commissioners are 
regulated by the laws passed by the Legislature of the 
State. The powers usually exercised by the Commission^ 
ers are these: 

( 1 ) They fix the rate of taxation for the county. 

(2) They appoint assessors, tax collectors, road super- 
visors. 

(3) They make contracts for repairing old roads and 
opening new ones, and also for building and repairing 
bridges. 

(4) They make contracts for building and repairing pub- 
lic buildings, such as courthouses, jails, and almshouses. 

(5) They appropriate money for the support of schools, 
for the payment of salaries of county officers, and for all 
necessary expenses of county government. 

(6) They represent the county in the courts when it is 
sued for damages. 

(2) The Sheriff. — In England a long time ago the 
sheriff was the most powerful officer in the county. In 
modern times, however, his power is not so great either 
in England or in this country. Nevertheless, the sheriff 
is still an important officer of the county. He has been 
called the " arm of the judge." This means that he car- 
ries out the orders of the judge. If the judge orders a 
man to be taken to prison, the sheriff takes him ; if he 
orders property to be sold, the sheriff sells it ; if he sen- 
tences a man to be hung, the sheriff hangs him. It is the 
duty also of the sheriff to preserve peace and order. If 
there is a riot, it is the duty of the sheriff to quell it 



LESSON XVI 85 

When necessary, the sheriff may call to his aid deputies or 
helpers. In times of great danger or disturbance, the 
sheriff may call to his aid the posse comitatiis, that is, 
every able-bodied man in the county. The sheriff lives 
at the county seat and has charge of the county jail and 
of its prisoners. 

(3) The Clerk of the County Court. — Any court above 
a police court, or above that of a justice of the peace, is 
a *' court of record " ; that is, its proceedings are enrolled 
in permanent form. The county court is a court of 
record, and the man who keeps its records is called the 
Clerk of the Court. This officer is a kind of secretary to 
the judge. He writes out an account of trials and keeps 
a record of the judgments of the court. Besides this, 
he keeps a record of deeds and mortgages given in the 
county, issues marriage certificates, and records all births 
and deaths. He is elected by the people. 

(4) The Probate Court. — It is usual for a county to 
elect three men as Judges of the Probate Court. It is 
the business of these officers to examine the wills of 
deceased persons and decide whether they have been 
made as wills by law ought to be made. When a person 
dies without having made a will, and leaves no one to take 
charge of his estate, the Probate Court will appoint an 
Administrator to take charge of it. When a child is left 
without father or mother, the Probate Court will appoint 
a guardian who will manage the estate until the child 
comes of age. In general, the business of the Probate 
Court is to see that the property of the dead falls into 
rightful hands. 



86 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

(5) Register of Wills. — Closely connected with the 
work of the Probate Court is the work of the Register of 

Wills. This officer keeps copies of all wills approved of 
by the Probate Court. 

(6) Tax Collectors. — A county is divided into districts 
of convenient size for the purpose of holding elections, 
registering voters, and collecting taxes. For each district 
a collector of taxes is appointed. 

(7) The County Treasurer. — The several collectors of 
taxes send the money which they collect to the County 
Treasurer. The treasurer pays out as well as receives 
all money raised by taxation. He must give bond for 
the faithful and honest perforrnance of his duties. If he 
steals any of the public money, his bondsmen are bound 
to make good the loss. 

(8) The Auditor. — Sometimes the county elects an 
Auditor, whose duty it is to examine the books of the 
treasurer and other officers, and report whether the pub- 
lic accounts are properly and honestly kept. 

(9) The Coroner. — When a person is murdered, or is 
found dead, or dies mysteriously, there ought to be some 
officer to take charge of the body of the dead person, and 
to inquire at once into the cause of the death. Such an 
officer is the Coroner — usually a physician. If you should 
ever come upon a dead body do not disturb it, but notify 
the coroner as quickly as possible. If he thinks that there 
has been foul play, he will summon six or twelve men to 
act as a coroner's jury, and an examination will be made. 
Witnesses will be summoned, and the jury, after hearing 
evidence, will state in writing what they think has been 



LESSON XVI 87 

the cause of the death. This is called holding a ** Coro- 
ner's Inquest." 

(10) The State's Attorney. — This officer, elected by the 
people, is a lawyer whose duty is to give legal advice to 
county officers, and to appear in the County Court at the 
trial of one who is charged with crime and present the side 
of the State. If the evidence goes to show that the 
accused is guilty, it is the business of the State's Attorney 
to do all in his power to secure the conviction of the 
offender. A faithful State's attorney is a terror to crimi- 
nals. This officer is sometimes called a District Attorney, 
or Prosecuting Attorney. 

(11) The School Board. — When we were studying about 
schools we learned that each school was governed by its 
Committee, or Board of School Trustees. Above these 
committees, and in some degree governing them, is the 
County School Board. This body sometimes appointed, 
sometimes elected, has the general management of the 
schools of the county. It regulates in whole or in part the 
salaries of teachers ; it grants certificates to those who are 
competent to teach ; it sometimes makes out the course of 
studies that pupils are to pursue ; it provides for the health 
and comfort of teachers and pupils. 

(12) The Stiperintendent of Schools. — The executive 
officer of the school board is the County Stiperintende7it 
of Schools, or Examiner. He sets the examinations for 
teachers, visits the different schools of the county, and 
reports their work to the school board; he grades the 
work of the schools and devotes his time to improving them 
in every way he can. 



88 LESSONS IN CIVICS 



QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT 

1. Bound accurately the county in which you live. When was it 
organized? How came it by its name? What is its area? Its popu- 
lation? Its county seat? What are its largest villages? Is there a 
city situated in it? 

2. There are a few other county officers besides those named in the 
lesson. Name them and describe the duties of each. 

3. Explain the difference between the words elected and appointed. 
Make out a list of county officers who are elected, and a list of those 
who are appointed. 

4. A sheriff of a county and his deputies fired upon and killed twenty 
men. Under what circumstances would you think the sheriff did right? 

5. What qualifications should a sheriff possess? A register of 
wills? A Staters attorney? A county treasurer? A superintendent 
of schools? As far as you know, are the officers of your county chosen 
on account of \.\\^\x fitness for office? 

6. Are you proud of your county ? If so, for what reasons? 

7. Which IS likely to have the better government, a New England 
town or a Southern county? 

8. Draw a map of your county, locating its county seat, and its chief 
towns and villages. 



LESSON XVII 
THE TOWNSHIP 

"The Western township has sprung out of the school as the New 
England township has sprung out of the church." — Woodrow Wilson. 

The Nature of Township Government. — In the Middle 
Atlantic States and in those great Western States that 
have been settled by emigrants from the Middle States, 
such as Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, the government that comes 
closest to the door of the citizen is that of the township. 
A township is a small portion of a county in which the 
people exercise some of those powers of government which 
are exercised by the town in New England and the county 
in the Southern States. Township government, therefore, 
lies halfway between town government and county gov- 
ernment. In New England the people of a town (by 
which we mean the people of a small neighborhood) have 
nearly all the powers of government in their hands, and 
very little is left for the county to do. In a Southern 
county the people of a small community exercise almost 
none of the powers of government ; everything is done by 
the county. Now in a township a few of the powers of 
government are taken from the county and given to the 
people of a small neighborhood. The things done by the 
township government are usually three : it supports pub- 
lic schools, it cares for the roads, and it helps the poor. 

89 



90 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

Of course it collects taxes with which to pay for these 
things. 

Officers of the Township. — Township government is not 
the same in all States. In New York and Michigan 
the township is almost a pure democracy ; it has its yearly 
meeting of all the citizens, at which all officers are elected 
and by-laws passed. As a rule, however, the township is 
a representative government. It derives its powers from 
laws passed by the Legislature of the State. The officials 
chosen by the people for the government of a township 
are as follows : 

(i) Supervisors (sometimes called Trustees^ — These 
officers, two or three in number, are elected every year. 
Their duty is to take care of the roads and bridges, erect 
and keep in repair guide-posts and watering troughs, and 
plant shade trees along the roadside. They may build and 
keep in repair a townhouse, in which elections may be held 
and officers of the town may transact the public business. 

(2) School Directors. — Every township has its Board 
of School Directors, or School Trustees. These officers, 
elected annually by the voters of the town, have control of 
the public schools within the township. Their powers and 
duties have been stated in a previous lesson. (Pages 30, 
31.) In some States the Directors of all the townships 
in a county meet every second or third year and elect a 
Superintendent of Schools for the county. 

(3) The Township Clerk. — This officer is a secretary for 
the supervisors. He keeps the records and accounts of 
the township. When stray animals come into the town- 
ship, the clerk writes out a description of them and assists 



LESSON XVII 91 

in restoring them to the rightful owner. Very often the 
clerk is not an important officer. 

(4) The Assessors. — The duty of these officers as assess- 
ors of taxes has already been explained. (Page 62.) Some- 
times the assessors of the township act as registrars of 
voters ; that is, they make out a list of the names of all 
citizens having the right to vote and present it to the 
judges of elections. They also keep a record of all births 
and deaths in the township. 

(5) T/ie Tax Collector. — This officer collects the road 
and school taxes of the township and places them in the 
hands of the proper officer, the supervisors getting the 
road tax, and the school directors getting the school tax. 
(For powers and duties of a tax collector, see page 63.) 

(6) The Auditors. — These officers examine the accounts 
of other officers of the township to see that all money 
has been properly and honestly expended. 

(7) The Justice of the Peace. — We shall speak of this 
officer several times in our study of government. It is 
sufficient here to say that he holds court on a small 
scale ; he acts as a peacemaker between his neighbors 
in their petty disputes ; he administers oaths ; he performs 
the marriage ceremony ; he issues search warrants. He is 
usually appointed by the Governor of the State. A justice 
of the peace may hold court in any township of a county. 

(8) The Constable acts as a policeman or peace officer 
of the town. When a disturbance arises, it is his duty to 
suppress it. ** The most common duty of a constable is to 
serve writs and warrants as directed by a justice of the 
peace. A writ is a notice in a civil case to the defend- 



92 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

ant to appear before the justice for a hearing. It must 
be served by reading it to the defendant, or by leaving 
it with his lawyer or some adult member of the family. ^ 
A warrant is an order for the arrest of one accused 
of a crime. When a warrant is placed in a constable's 
hands, he must arrest the accused person and take him 
before the justice ; if the accused is committed to jail 
the constable must take him there." ^ 

(9) Overseers of the Poor. — These officers attend to 
the needs of the poor. When there is no poorhouse in 
the county, the township supports the poor by sending 
them provisions to their homes or paying some one to 
provide for them. The overseers may lay a tax for the 
support of the poor of the township. 

(10) Election Officers, — These are judges of elections 
and clerks. Their duties have been explained in Les- 
son X. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 

1. How many townships in the county in which you live? Name 
them. 

2. Bound the township in which you live. What is its population ? 
Draw a map of it, locating the townhouse. Locate any villages that it 
may contain. 

3. What is the rate of taxation in your township? How does this 
compare with the rate of adjoining townships ? 

4. Are the officers of your township elected by ballot, or by the peo- 
ple assembled in town meeting? 

5. In some States the supervisors of all the different townships of a 
county act as a board of county commissioners for the management of 
county affairs. Is this the case in your State ? 

6. Are women allowed to vote for school directors in your township? 

1 Shimmell's "Pennsylvania Citizen," p. 18. 



LESSON XVIII 

VILLAGE AND CITY GOVERNMENT 

"Cities have preserved human liberties." — F. JV. Thorpe. 

Importance of the Subject. — In this lesson and in the 
next we shall speak of village and city government. The 
subjects of village (or borough) government and city gov- 
ernment will be carried along together, for villages and 
cities are governed in very much the same manner. A 
village is simply a small city, and a city is a large village. 
If you live in a city, it is of special importance that you 
learn all you can about city government, for you will 
sooner or later discover that much of the comfort and 
happiness of your life depends upon the ways the affairs 
of your city are managed. A well-governed city is one 
of the best places in the world for one to live in, while a 
badly governed city is one of the worst places. If when 
you are grown you will try to make the government of 
your city better, your efforts may be richly rewarded, for 
you may be the cause of making the lives of thousands of 
people happier. 

The Beginning of a City. — There is an old saying that 
" Rome was not built in a day." This is true of all cities. 
The miles of streets and the grand buildings you see 
around you in a city were not built in a day. A city 

93 



94 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

begins with one building, perhaps a flourmill, or a saw- 
mill, or a farmhouse, or a rude shed for cattle. Let us 
try to follow in our imagination the growth of a city. Let 
us suppose the first building is a sawmill built in a forest 
of fine timber. Soon after the mill is built its manager 
builds a home for himself and family. In a short time 
rows of houses are built as dwellings for the men who 
work in the mill and for those who cut down the trees. 
These rows of houses are the beginnings of streets. The 
families who dwell in these houses must be supplied with 
groceries and other necessaries; hence it is not long he- 
fore a merchant comes and erects a building for a store. 
The horses that haul the logs must be shod and the 
wagons repaired; hence a blacksmith shop and a wheel- 
wright shop must be built. A railroad is built near the 
settlement, and this brings a station and a station master. 
The place must now have a name. A natural name for 
it would be Millville. Let us call it that. Millville is 
prosperous, and many who wish to join in its prosperity 
are attracted to it. The doctor and the druggist, the 
shoemaker and the carpenter, with their families, come 
to try their fortunes. Soon a schoolhouse is built, and 
a church and a house for the preacher. Another mill is 
built. This means more workmen and more merchants. 
Now come the tailor, the seamstress, the music teacher, 
the barber, and baker, and many others. Millville has 
a thousand inhabitants. But it has no separate govern- 
ment. It is governed precisely as the more thinly settled 
region around it is governed. It pays a large share of the 
taxes of the county in which it is situated, yet it gets but 



LESSON XVIII 95 

little return for the money. In the spending of the taxes 
but little attention is given to its needs. It needs street 
lamps, sidewalks, sewers, waterworks, policemen, firemen. 
It also needs certain powers of government that are nec^ 
essary wherever a large number of people live together. 
As it is, in Millville each person acts in reference to his 
neighbor's comfort pretty much as he pleases. He paves 
the sidewalk in front of his house, or does not pave it, as 
best suits him ; he helps to buy oil for the street lamps, 
or he refuses ; if he sees fit, he may throw garbage into 
the street, and commit other offenses against the health 
of the town : there are no officers and no laws to hinder 
him. When there is a drunken row, there are no officers 
to arrest the offenders. 

In order to change this state of things, and make Mill- 
ville a safer, cleaner, and more beautiful place in which 
to live, its inhabitants get for it a special government. 
The people of the settlement organize as a village'^ (or 
borough). They apply to the Legislature of the State or 
to the judge of some court, and get a charter, which gives 
them the right to village officers and village laws and 
privileges. What these officers are called and what are 
their powers it is not necessary to state here. If you live 
in a chartered village, get a copy of your village charter 
and study it. You can learn from the charter all you 
need to know about your village government. It is 
enough to say here, that under their charter the citizens 
of Millville begin the business of governing a village. 

^ What is spoken of in this lesson as a village is in the Southern States 
usually called a town. 



g6 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

A police officer is employed, a fire engine is bought, 
sewers are laid, streets are paved, a better schoolhouse 
is built. To pay for all these things village or borough 
taxes are levied upon the property holders. 

Under its new government Millville is stirred with new 
life. More mills are built; large factories employing 
hundreds of people are set in operation. The population 
rapidly and steadily increases. In the course of time, 
instead of having a thousand inhabitants, it has come to 
have many thousands. It is now found that the village 
form of government does not suit such a large place. 
The powers that are granted to the village by its charter 
are too few and too small. Millville has become a city, 
and it must have a government suitable to a city. 

Charters. — We have seen that when a community 
wishes to organize as a village, or borough, the citizens 
secure a charter which gives them the right of establish- 
ing for themselves a village government. In much the 
same way, when a village grows to be a city in size, the 
citizens secure from the State a charter which gives them 
the right of forming a city government. In some States, 
when a village reaches a certain population, the law gives 
it a charter, and it becomes a city simply by reason of its 
size. It will be well for you at this point to get a clear/ 
notion of what a charter is. The word charter comes 
from the Latin carta, which means paper. A charter is 
a written or printed document, conferring certain rights 
and privileges upon the persons to whom it is granted. 
Thus a charter may be granted to a company of men, 
giving them the privilege of building and operating a 



LESSON XVIII 97 

railroad; or one may be granted, giving the right of 
founding a college. Both the railroad company and the 
college will conduct their business under their charter. 
The charter will tell them just what they may do, and 
they must not do more than this. A city also, as has 
been said, is governed under a charter granted by the 
State. The parties to whom the charter is granted are 
all the male citizens of the city above twenty-one years 
of age. In our next lesson we shall see what kind of 
government a city usually enjoys under its charter. If 
you wish to understand the government of a city, by all 
means get a copy of its charter and read it. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

1 . Obtain a copy of your village (or borough) charter, and examine 
it for answer to the following questions : 

a. When was the charter granted? 

b. By what authority was it granted? 

c. What is the title of the executive officer of the village? 

d. What is the governing body called? What are the powers of this 

body? How often does it meet? 

e. Are the officers of the village elected or appointed? 

f. What powers of taxation does the charter grant ? Could the people 

of the village be taxed to build a bridge costing $50,000 ? One 
costing $5000? 

g. Who are entitled to vote at village elections ? 
h. What are the boundaries of the village ? 

2. What improvements are needed in your village? Can they be 
liecured under the terms of the charter? 

3. Have you seen villages much more attractive than the one in 
which you live? What makes a village attractive? 

4. Are the officers of your village slow and old-fashioned, or pro- 
gressive and modern, in their ideas? 

LESS. IN CIV. — 7 



LESSON XIX 

CITY GOVERNMENT (Continued) 

" The modern city has come to be a huge corporation for carrying on 
a huge business with many branches." — John Fiske. 

The City Council. — You find that the charter of your 
city provides for a government with a division of powers 
such as was described in a previous lesson. It provides 
for a legislative or lawmaking department, for a judicial 
department, and for an executive department. The laws 
of a city are made by a body usually called the City 
Council ; sometimes this body is called the Board of 
Aldermen. The city is divided into wards, and the voters 
of each ward elect one or more councilmen to represent 
them in the City Council. If there are twenty wards in 
the city, the Council will consist of twenty, or forty, or sixty 
members, according as there are one, two, or three mem- 
bers from each ward.^ These councilmen meet in the City 
Hally and make laws for the government of the city. 
The laws that a City Council makes are called ordinances 
An ordinance, then, is a city law. These ordinances of 
the Council relate to almost everything that concerns life 
in a city. There is not room here to speak of all the 
things done by a City Council ; a few of the things done 
by it, however, may be mentioned. 

When you are born, the City Council requires that your 

1 In cities under the " commission " form of government, the council con- 
sists of a few men elected by the whole city, and has both legislative and 
executive powers. 

98 



LESSON XIX 99 

name be registered in the book of births; when you are 
old enough to go to school, it provides for you schools and 
teachers and, sometimes, books ; if your parents are too 
poor to support you, it will help you with food and cloth- 
ing; when you go out from your home, you walk upon 
streets paved and cleaned and lighted by the Council; if 
you should be attacked, its policemen will arrest your 
assailant ; if you wish to engage in some business, it will 
probably demand of you a license ; if you wish to build a 
home, you must first get from it permission to build ; if your 
house takes fire, its firemen come rushing to put the fire out. 
The Council provides for the removal of garbage from your 
yard ; it employs men to inspect the quality of your food 
and drink ; it provides parks and open squares where you 
may get a breath of fresh air and a glimpse of nature ; it 
causes to be brought into your house a supply of fresh 
water, and it provides sewers to carry impure water away 
from your house ; if in your old age you shall be infirm 
and poor, the Council will care for you in its asylums ; at 
last, when you shall die, it will grant a permit for your 
burial, and the fact of your death will have to be registered 
in its book of deaths. 

Thus from birth to death the acts of the City Council 
affect your lives. How important then it is that that body 
should be composed of honest and intelligent men ! How 
tireless should be the efforts of voters to secure the elec- 
tion of such men ! Remember this : If you succeed in 
getting honorable, wide-awake men in your City Council, 
you will have a well-governed city. As far as you know, 
have you such men now in your City Council } 



100 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

The Mayor. — The executive power of the government 
of a city is given to an officer called the Mayor. The 
Mayor is elected by the votes of the people for a term 
varying from one to four years. His duty is to carry into 
effect the ordinances of the City Council. In most cities 
the Mayor can veto an ordinance of the Council. This 
means that he can forbid the passage of such an ordinance 
— veto meaning I forbid. When an ordinance is vetoed, it 
is generally sent back to the Council and voted upon again, 
and if it is passed again by a two-thirds vote, it is a lawful 
ordinance and must be enforced, notwithstanding the 
Mayor's objection. Another duty of the Mayor is to 
appoint many of the officers who conduct the business of 
the city. The business of a city is very great, much greater 
than that of any government that has been yet studied, and 
it takes almost an army of men to transact it. The work 
of the city is done by departments. These are ; The 
department of police, the department of health, the depart- 
ment of taxes, the fire department, the department of 
streets, the department of education, the department of 
elections, and other departments. In many cities the 
heads of these departments are appointed by the Mayor, 
but the appointment has usually to be approved by the 
City Council. Many people believe that the Mayor ought 
to have the right to appoint the heads of the departments 
without submitting his choice to the City Council. They 
think this would give the Mayor an opportunity to choose 
better men. Unless he has this full power of appointment, 
he is compelled to appoint only such men as are acceptable 
to the Council, and when a bad appointment is made, the 



LESSON XIX 10 1 

Mayor excuses himself by saying it was the best the 
Council would allow him to make. What is done in each 
department is summed up in a written report and is sent to 
the Mayor and City Council. If you wish to study city 
government thoroughly, you must study these reports of 
the departments as well as the city charter. 

City Courts. — If the City Council should pass an ordi- 
nance forbidding the explosion of firecrackers upon the 
street, it would be the duty of the Mayor to enforce it. 
This he would do through the policemen, but not through 
the police alone. Any one accused of violating the ordi- 
nance would first be taken to a police court, and there be 
tried before a police justice for the offense. If the accused 
person was found guilty, he would then be handed over to 
the executive department for punishment. When a person 
is accused of some very grave offense, as of arson, or mur- 
der, his trial is conducted in the Criminal Court of the city. 
Here he may have a trial by jury. What is meant by a 
" trial by jury " will be explained hereafter. Besides the 
police court and criminal court, there is in a large city, 
another court, usually called the Court of Common Pleas. 
This court tries cases when the dispute is concerning 
property or money, or where a question of damages is 
involved. These courts — the Police Courts, the Criminal 
Court, and the Court of Common Pleas — are the judicial 
department of the government of a city. 

What a City Government should Do. — We have described 
briefly the three parts of a city government, and have 
spoken of a few of the things a city government does. 
Should the city attempt to do more than it usually does I 



I02 LESSONS IN CiVlCS 

It supplies the people with water ; should it supply them 
with gas also ? Should it own and operate the electric cars ? 
It provides children with an education ; should it provide 
them with a midday lunch also ? Should it furnish the 
music for the parks ? Should it own and operate the tele- 
phone ? Should it lay pipes and supply heat to families ? 
These are a few of the questions you will be called upon to 
answer when you become voters. You cannot answer them 
intelligently now ; but if you will begin to study them now, 
when the time comes for you to vote and act, you will not 
vote and act like blind men. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

(For Pupils who live in Cities) 

1 . In what county is the city in which you live situated ? When was 
it organized? What are its boundaries? What is its population? 
What are its industries? Can a city be situated in a town? 

2. How many wards in your city? In which ward do you live? 
Bound the ward in which you live. How many councilmen or alder- 
men does each ward in your city send to the City Council ? What are 
the qualifications of a good councilman? Name the councilmen who 
represent your ward. 

3. Let a pupil obtain a copy of the report of the police department 
and describe its work. The report will show how many policemen are 
employed, what are their salaries, the number of arrests made, the 
causes for which the arrests were made, and other interesting facts. 
Reports of other departments may be similarly studied. 

4. How does the rate of taxation in your city compare with that of 
other cities of equal size ? 

5. What is the amount of the debt of your city? 

6. Does your city own its gas and electric light plants ? 

7. Has your city the reputation of being well governed? 

8. What are the qualifications of a good Mayor? 

9. How may children help the cause of good city government? 



LESSON XX 

THE STATE 

" States make up the mass, the body, the organic stuff of the govern- 
ment of the country. To them is intrusted our daily welfare." 

— Woo draw Wilson. 

The Thirteen Colonies. — In speaking of the government 
of the city and town and county, we have now and then 
spoken of a larger government that is above these and 
that holds these together. This larger government is the 
State, and it is the State we are now going to study. We 
may best begin the study of the State by glancing at the 
history of State government in the United States. 

At the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, the three 
million Englishmen who lived along the coast of the 
Atlantic occupied thirteen distinct and separate colonies, 
— Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Con- 
necticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and 
Georgia. These colonies were all dependent upon the 
English government ; their inhabitants were subjects of 
the English king. But England was three thousand miles 
away, and it took, in those times, many weeks for a vessel 
to cross the Atlantic. As a result of this wide separation, 
England could not govern an American colony in the 
same way that she governed one of her counties at home, 

103 



104 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

A colony in many things was allowed to govern itself. It 
elected its own lawmakers, it appointed its own judges. 
Rhode Island and Connecticut even elected their own Gov- 
ernors, and thus exercised the three powers of government, 
— the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. Aside 
from the tie that bound it to England, a colony had no 
other ties. Each colony was independent of all the other 
colonies. Pennsylvania had no more to do in the way 
of government with its neighbor Maryland than it had 
with Prussia. Likewise each colony had a different his- 
tory. Virginia had grown by joining to herself, from time 
to time, the counties that were formed as new tracts of 
land were brought under cultivation. The county, there- 
fore, was of great importance in Virginia. Massachusetts 
had been formed by joining together two colonies that had 
consisted each of a number of towns. For this reason the 
town was the most important feature in the colonial gov- 
ernment of Massachusetts. Maryland had been developed 
in much the way a wise landlord would develop an im- 
mense tract of farming land. Connecticut and Rhode 
Island, as we have seen, were so free that they were almost 
independent republics. Thus it came about that at the 
time of the Revolution the thirteen colonies were not onlv 
independent of each other, but they differed from each 
other in the character of their governments. 

The Thirteen Original States. — After the Revolutionary 
War had brought victory to the Americans, each colony 
found itself a free and independent nation, — a State. 
Instead of thirteen English colonies, there were thirteen 
American States. We shall see hereafter, how, after 



LESSON XX lOS 

much trouble, the thirteen States joined and formed the 
United States. At present let us try to grasp the idea 
that when the colonies had gained their freedom, each 
colony was then free to govern itself. Indeed, each colony 
was compelled to govern itself, for there was no longer 
any king or parliament for it to look up to. As quickly 
as possible after the Declaration of Independence, the 
people of each colony took up the difficult task of self- 
government. The first thing to be done was to change 
the colonial government into a State government. This 
was done by representatives of the people of a State 
coming together in convention and agreeing on a plan 
as to just how the State was to be governed. This plan 
was written out and submitted to the people for ratification, 
and was called the Constitution of the State. Each colony 
made for itself a constitution that suited best its own 
wishes and its own needs. The constitution of Virginia 
differed from that of Massachusetts, because the needs 
of Virginia were different from those of Massachusetts. 
You must not suppose that the new State government that 
was formed differed very much from the old colonial gov- 
ernment. The people of a colony, after many years of 
hard experience, had built up the kind of government they 
liked best, and they had become used to obeying certain 
laws and observing certain customs. Now it is not pos- 
sible — ■ and you should think of this when you hear new 
schemes of government proposed — it is not possible for 
a people suddenly to make a complete change in their 
laws, customs, and habits. So the new State governments 
were necessarily very much like the old colonial govern- 



I06 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

merits. The colonies of Connecticut and Rhode Island 
did not form a new government at all. The old charters 
granted to them by England were taken as Constitutions 
for these two States. 

The State governments differed from each other in 
many respects, yet they were alike in many respects. 
Thus every State elected a Governor for a short term of 
years. I suppose if a State had so desired, it could have 
chosen some one as its king. But none of them did this. 
They had had enough of kings. Again, in every State 
the powers of government were divided into the legislative, 
executive, and judicial departments. The common law of 
England was also declared in all the States to be the law 
under the new order of things. It was natural that the 
governments of the different States should bear a strong 
resemblance to each other. The people of the colonies, 
from New Hampshire to Georgia, were nearly all the same 
in blood and speech ; they were nearly all Englishmen, 
and had English notions of government and law. 

The Admitted States. — In 1 788-1 790 the thirteen origi^ 
nal States united under the Constitution. It was not long 
before other communities outside of the present^ bounda- 
ries of the original States wished to join the Union. Each 
was allowed to do this as soon as it had grown large 
enough in population and after it had adopted for itself 
a constitution that was acceptable to Congress. When 
thesf requirements were fulfilled, the new community was 
admitted to the Union as a State. Vermont was the first 
new State admitted. This was in 1791. The next year 
Kentucky was admitted; and so on from time to time 



LESSON XX 107 

until thirty-five new States have been admitted into the 
Union, making forty-eight in all. The last to be admitted 
was Arizona. 

The governments of the admitted States were modeled 
after those of the older States. 

It is plain that the younger States have had an advan- 
tage over the older ones in the matter of making laws for 
themselves, for they have been able to select those laws 
of the older States that experience has shown to be good, 
and they have been able to avoid making those laws that 
experience has shown to be bad. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 

1. Bound the State in which you live. Is it one of the original 
States ? If it is not, when was it admitted into the Union ? 

2. What is the origin of the name of your State ? What is its nick- 
name.'' What is the origin of its nickname? What is the population 
of your State ? 

3. How many States have a greater population than your State? 
What is the area of your State? How many States have a greater area? 
How many States as large as the smallest State in the Union could be 
made out of the largest State in the Union ? 

4. If you live in one of the admitted States, learn from what State 
the first settlers in your State came and compare your State with the 
parent State, in reference to (a) government, (d) religion, (c) occupation, 
{d) political parties. 

5. Name the territories. 



LESSON XXI 

THE STATE CONSTITUTION 

" In the American State the legislature is not supreme, but has limits 
to its authority prescribed by a written document known as the Consti- 
tution." — John Fiske. 

Meaning of the Word ** Constitution.** — You have met 
with the word Constitution several times already, and, 
since you will meet with it many times hereafter, you 
ought to try to understand clearly what it means. The 
word comes from constituo, a Latin word which means 
fixy establish, settle. The constitution of a debating society 
is a set of fixed rules by which the society is to be per- 
manently governed, and from which it cannot rightfully 
depart. The constitution of a State is a document con- 
taining those fixed principles and rules by which a State 
must be governed, and from which neither the Governor, 
the lawmaker, nor the judge may depart. The consti- 
tution may be called the fundamental law of the State, 
because it is the foundation upon which all laws are built, 
just as the foundation of a house is the part upon which 
all the other parts rest. Think of a constitution as the 
foundation plan upon which a system of laws may be built. 

Description of a State Constitution. — I have before me 
the constitution of the State in which I live, and I will 
attempt to describe it to you very briefly : It begins with 

loS 



LESSON XXI 109 

a Declaration of Rights. It declares that a people have 
the right to govern themselves ; that all citizens have a 
right to a trial by jury ; that the Governor, the judges, 
and the lawmakers are responsible to the people for their 
actions ; that all male adult citizens have the right to 
vote ; that the legislative, executive, and judicial powers 
of government shall be separate ; that there shall be 
freedom of speech and debate ; that no one shall be 
compelled to give evidence against himself in a court of 
law ; that the press shall be free ; that no title of nobility 
shall be granted ; that a man's religion shall not be made 
a test for holding office; that the people have in them- 
selves the right to form a new government. After declar- 
ing these and some other rights, the constitution takes up 
the executive department of government. It states who 
may be elected Governor, how and when he may be 
elected, how long he shall serve, and what are his powers 
and duties. The powers and duties of other executive 
officers are also defined. After the executive we come 
to the legislative department. We are told what shall 
be the name of the Legislature, how it shall be composed, 
who may be its members, where it shall meet, how a law 
shall be passed, and, in a general way, what kind of laws 
shall be passed, and what kind may not be passed. (Thus 
it states that the Legislature shall pass no law suspending 
the writ of habeas corpus. See p. 42.) After the legisla- 
tive comes the judicial department. The qualifications, 
duties, and powers of judges are explained, and the 
boundaries of the different judicial circuits are defined. 
Last of all come the miscellaneous provisions. These 



no LESSONS IN CIVICS 

relate to education, corporations, public debts, taxation, 
and amendments. The constitution altogether would 
make about forty pages of this book. There are forty- 
eight States, and each State has its own constitution and 
no two constitutions are alike, but all the State constitu- 
tions have a strong resemblance to the one that has been 
described. 

How the Constitution of a State is Made. — The consti- 
tution of a State is made by a body of men who are 
chosen to make a constitution and to do nothing else. 
This body is called the Constitutional Convention. This 
Convention is composed of delegates elected by the people 
of the counties and cities of the State. In this Constitu- 
tional Convention the needs and wishes of the people of 
the State are discussed, and a constitution is carefully 
drawn up. After a constitution is agreed upon by the 
Convention, it is submitted to the people to be voted 
upon. If a majority of the popular vote is cast for it, 
it stands as the constitution — the fixed plan of govern- 
ment. If it does not receive a majority of the votes, no 
further attention is paid to it ; the work of the Convention 
was in vain. If the people reject a proposed constitution, 
they must live under the old constitution until another 
Convention is called, and a constitution is framed that 
will suit them. In recent years there have been Constitu- 
tional Conventions that have not submitted the constitu- 
tion to the people to be voted upon. In nearly all the 
States, however, a constitution must be voted upon and 
adopted by the people before it is the law. Is it best to 
let the people vote upon the constitution of their State ? 



LESSON XXI III 

How a Constitution is Changed. — We have called the 
constitution the fixed, unchanging plan of government. 
But it would not do for a constitution to remain unchanged 
and unchangeable forever. It sometimes happens that a 
plan is good at one time and yet bad at another time ; and 
a constitution that might have been good and wise in the 
year 1800, may, by the year 1900, have become foolish or 
harmful. If, then, there is something in a constitution that 
ought not to be there, or if something ought to be there that 
is not there, how shall a change be made ? The answer 
is : Bj/ amendment ; the constitution is mended where it is 
weak. This is done as follows : The Legislature of the 
State passes the amendment, which it thinks ought to be 
inserted in the constitution, and then submits the amend- 
ment to the people to be voted upon, for or against. If 
it gets the requisite number of the votes of the electors, 
the amendment becomes a part of the constitution. In 
some States, it is difficult to secure an amendment to the 
constitution on account of the difficulty of getting it 
passed by the Legislature. Thus, in Georgia before an 
amendment can be submitted to the people it must first 
pass in two successive legislatures, both times by a two- 
thirds vote, before it can be submitted to the people. But 
in some States an amendment can now be proposed either 
by the Legislature or by a certain percentage of the voters 
signing an initiative petition. 

When an entirely new constitution is desired, a new 
Constitutional Convention must be called. This is usu- 
ally done as follows : The Legislature submits to the 
people the question, whether they wish a new Constitu- 



112 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

tional Convention or not. If the people vote yeSy the 
Legislature provides for the election of the delegates to 
the Convention. The election is then held and the elected 
delegates meet in convention, make a new constitution, 
and submit it to the people to be voted upon, as has been 
explained. You see that a constitution is adopted directly 
by the votes of the people. It is not adopted by the 
representatives of the people : it is very nearly the work 
of a pure democracy. 

* * Constitutional * * and * * Unconstitutional. * * — You will 
often meet with these words in your reading. What do 
they mean } Constitutional means in accordance with the 
constitution. If an act of an individual, or of an officer 
of government, or a law of the Legislature, does not con- 
flict with anything that is found in the constitution, that 
act or law is constitutional. ** Unconstitutional " means, 
of course, not constitutional. This seems at first sight 
very easy and hardly worth mentioning, but in reality it 
is sometimes very difficult to tell whether an act or a law 
is constitutional or unconstitutional. Whether it is or not, 
must be decided by the judges of the State. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

I . Get a copy of the constitution of your State, and examine it foi 
answers to the following questions : 

(a) When was the constitution adopted by the people ? 

(J?) About how many pages of this book would it make ? 

(jo) What are the principal rights declared ? 

(d ) Are there any amendments to the constitution as it now stands ? 

If so, when and why were they adopted? 
{e) What provision of the constitution seems to be the most important? 



LESSON XXI 113 

(/") Do you find anything in the constitution that you would like to 

see changed ? 
(g) How would you proceed to get the constitution changed? 

2. Elect a committee consisting of classmates to draw up a constitu- 
tion for the government of a debating society. Provide in the consti- 
tution for election of officers, time and place of holding meetings, 
qualifications for membership, dues, fines, etc. The committee cannot 
do good work unless it takes as a model some suitable constitution 
already drawn up. The constitution drawn up should be submitted to 
the whole class for approval. 

3. Suppose you think a certain law is unconstitutional, have you a 
right to disobey it ? 

4. How many constitutions has your State had during its entire 
history ? 

5. Would it be wise for Maine and Louisiana to exchange constitu- 
tions ? 

LESS. IN CIV. — 8 



LESSON XXII 

THE STATE LEGISLATURE 

" While acting as the representative of the people I shall be governed 
by their will on all subjects upon which I have the means of knowing 
what their will is, and upon all others I shall do what my own judgment 
teaches me will best advance their interests." — Abraham Lincoln. 

When and where the State Legislature Meets. — Each 
State has its capital, or the city in which the business of 
the State government is transacted. If you have ever been 
in the capital of your State, you have doubtless visited the 
capital, or Statehouse. This is usually a handsome build- 
ing, containing many halls, galleries, and offices. In this 
building is done the most important work of the State gov- 
ernment. Here the Governor of the State and his assist- 
ants have their offices ; here the highest judges of the 
State hold their courts; here every two years ^ the Legis- 
lature or General Assembly of the State meets to make 
laws. If your visit to the Statehouse is made upon the 
day a newly elected Legislature meets for the first time, 
you can learn much about the making of the laws. 

The Two Branches of the Legislature. — Let us suppose 
that you are in the Statehouse on the morning a Legis- 
lature assembles for the first time. When the hour for 
meeting comes, the lawmakers, who have been moving 
busily about in the corridors, talking with each other, divide 

^ In a few States the Legislature meets every year. 
"4 



LESSON XXII 115 

into two bodies. The smaller number meet in a room at 
one end of the Statehouse. The men who meet in this 
room are somewhat advanced in years ; they move about 
in a quiet and dignified manner. Some of them seem to 
be familiar with the place and to know how to begin with 
the business. These men are senatoi'Sy this is the Senate 
chamber, and this branch of the Legislature is the Senate, 

The larger number of lawmakers assemble in a large 
hall at the opposite end of the Statehouse. This body, as 
we look upon it from a gallery, differs much in appearance 
from the Senate. The men are of all ages, from the young 
man of two and twenty to the gray-haired man of seventy. 
Some of them are dignified and of pleasing and intelligent 
appearance ; others appear to be very ordinary men. A 
few of them are self-possessed, but most of them act as if 
they were in a strange place. These men are representa- 
tiveSy and this is the House of Representatives, The Legis- 
lature of a State, therefore, is divided into two branches, — 
an upper house, or Senate, and a lower house, or House of 
Representatives. In some States the lower house is called 
the Assembly, in others it is called the House of Dele- 
gates. In New Jersey it is called the General As- 
sembly. 

Election of Members of the Legislature. — Both the 
lower house and the Senate are representative bodies, that 
is, the members of both are sent to the capital to act in the 
place of the people. The counties (or towns) and cities 
are represented in the House of Representatives, according 
to population. A county (or town), if it is small, may have 
but one representative, while a county with a large popu- 



Il6 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

lation may have two, or three, or four. In the same way 
a city is represented by one, two, or more representatives, 
according as it is small or large. How is the number of 
representatives for a county, or town, or city determined } 
Every ten years a census of the people is taken, and from 
this census it can be determined how many representatives 
a county or city is entitled to. If it is the law that there 
should be at least one representative for 10,000 people, 
then a county with a population of 10,000 or under would 
be entitled to one representative ; a county with a popula- 
tion of more than 10,000 and less than 20,000 would get 
two representatives ; a city of 50,000 people, according to 
this rule, would get five representatives. But a lawmaking 
body should not be so large as to make it difficult to trans- 
act business in a quiet and deliberate manner. A State 
with 1,000,000 of inhabitants, represented by one repre- 
sentative for every 10,000 people, would have a House of 
Representatives consisting of 100 members. If the popu- 
lation of the State increases to 2,000,000, how would the 
law have to be changed so that the number of representa* 
tives would still be 100.? 

A senator represents a larger number of people than is 
represented by a member of the House. The State is 
divided into senatorial districts, and from each of these dis- 
tricts one senator is elected. A senatorial district may in- 
clude several counties, or several senators may represent 
one county. It is generally provided by law that senators 
shall be older than representatives, and for this reason 
they are supposed to be wiser than members of the lower 
house. They are elected to serve for longer terms than 



LESSON XXII 117 

representatives, and they usually are men who have had 
more experience in matters of government. 

Organization. — After a roll call of the members, the 
first thing that is done in the newly elected House of 
Representatives is to choose a presiding officer, called a 
Speaker. The Speaker takes the chair, and then the 
House proceeds to elect some one who is not a member, 
as its Clerk or Secretary. The duty of this official is to 
write out in a large book, called Xh^Journal^ a full account 
of everything that takes place in the House. The House 
next elects a Sergeant-at-Arms, an officer whose duty it 
is to keep order in the House, and to bring absent mem- 
bers to their seats when their presence is needed to make 
a qiioricm. 

When the Clerk and Sergeant-at-Arms, and such minor 
officials as messengers and doorkeepers, are chosen by 
the vote of the House, the Speaker announces the Com- 
mittees of the House. 

A Committee of the House consists of a small number 
of members — three, or five, or seven, or nine — who have 
charge of some particular branch of legislative business. 
Thus if the Speaker appoints five members as the Com- 
mittee on Education, all matters coming up in the House 
relating to education are first referred to this committee. 
There are a great many committees. The most important 
are those on Finance, Corporations, the Judiciary, Elec- 
tions, Appropriations, Education, Labor, Manufactures, 
Agriculture, Public Buildings. 

If we had remained in the Senate during its opening 
hour, we should have seen almost the same things that we 



Il8 . LESSONS IN CIVICS 

saw in the House. There might have been some differ- 
ence in the matter of the presiding officer. Some States 
have a Lieutenant Governor, and when this is the case, this 
officer, by virtue of his office, acts as Chairman or Presi- 
dent of the Senate. Yet even where there is a Lieutenant 
Governor, the Senate elects a President pro tempore, who 
serves in the absence of that officer. So we may say that 
the Senate is organized in the same way that we saw the 
House of Representatives organized. It elects its Clerk, 
its Sergeant-at-Arms, its messengers and doorkeepers, and 
the President announces just such committees as are an- 
nounced in the House, After the two houses have been 
organized as described, the Legislature is ready to begin 
its work, — to make laws for the welfare of the people. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 

(Answers to a number of these questions can be found in the consti- 
tution of the State.) 

1. Is the capital of your State situated in the most suitable place ? 
Are the citizens of the State proud of their Statehouse ? 

2. What is the name of the lower house of the Legislature of 
your State ? What is the name of the Legislature taken as a whole ? 
When does the Legislature meet ? How long may it continue in 
session ? 

3. What are the qualifications for a senator in your State ? For a 
representative ? Do you know the name of the senator that represents 
you in the Senate ? 

4. What is the method of representation in your State ? Is it gen- 
erally regarded as a just method ? 

5. Is there a Lieutenant Governor in your State ? 

6. What is the compensation of a senator ? Of a representative ? 

7. What is " mileage " .? What is meant by " a quorum " ? What 
is regarded as a quorum in the Legislature of your State ? 



LESSON XXIII 

THE STATE LEGISLATURE (Continued) 

"The convention, the campaign, the election, the division of the 
powers of government, the exercise of political rights, are merely for 
the purpose of making a law." — F. TV". Thorpe. 

How a Law is Made. — Let us now see how a law is 

passed in the Legislature. We will suppose that many 
people in the State wish a law to be passed, compelling 
railroad companies to run their tracks wherever there is a 
road or street-crossing, either above or below the road or 
street, so that the lives of pedestrians or those riding in 
vehicles may not be endangered. How will they get the 
law passed .-* They will get one of their representatives in 
the Legislature to take up their cause for them. A mem- 
ber, let us say, of the House, will prepare a bill, that is, 
the draft of a law, which compels railroads to lay their 
tracks either above or below grade at all public crossings. 
The member first gives notice to the Speaker that at a 
convenient time he will introduce into the House a bill 
" To compel railroad companies to lay their tracks either 
above or below grade at all public crossings." When the 
day arrives for introducing the bill, the member gives it 
to the Clerk of the House to read. This is called ^h.^ first 
reading. The Speaker immediately after it is read refers 
the bill to its proper co^nmittee, which, in this case, is the 

"9 



I20 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

Committee on Railroads. In a few days the Committee 
in its private room will give attention to the bill. Friends 
of the bill will appear before the Committee and speak in 
its favor ; opponents of it will also be present to speak 
against it. After hearing both sides of the question, the 
Committee makes its report to the House. If the Com- 
mittee thinks there is no reason for such a law, it reports 
** unfavorably," and there the matter will probably end : 
the bill is "killed in Committee." But if the Committee 
thinks well of the bill, it reports " favorably," This 
means that in the opinion of the Committee the bill ought 
to become a law. The title of the bill is again read in the 
House, and if no objection is raised, it is allowed to pass 
upon its second reading. In its regular order the Bill is 
taken up for its third and last reading. It is now read in 
full by the Clerk, and a discussion of it begins. Speeches 
are made in favor of it, and those who are opposed to it, 
speak against it. If a member wishes to change a par- 
ticular part of the bill, he offers an amendment to it. The 
amendment is voted upon, and if it receives a majority of 
the votes, the amendment becomes a part of the bill ; if 
the amendment is voted down, the bill remains as it was 
before. After a full discussion and debate, the measure 
comes to a final vote. The Speaker asks the House, 
*' Shall the bill pass } " The House answers the question 
by taking a vote. If a majority vote aye (yes), the bill 
passes ; if a majority vote no^ or if the noes equal the ayes. 
the bill is lost; it is "killed in the House." Let us sup- 
pose it passes in the House. It is then taken by the mes- 
senger of the House to the Senate, Here it has the same 



LESSON XXIII 121 

history that it had in the House. It is referred by the 
President of the Senate to its proper committee, is read 
three times upon three different days, is fully discussed 
upon its last reading, is possibly amended, and is then 
voted upon. If it passes in the Senate with amendments, 
it must then go back to the House in order that a vote 
may be taken upon it as amended by the Senate. If it 
passes in the House with the amendment, the bill has 
passed, and, as far as the Legislature is concerned, it is a 
law. 

In nearly all the States, however, a bill that has passed 
both houses of the Legislature is not yet a law, but must 
be sent to the Governor of the State for his approval. If 
the Governor signs it, or if he takes no action upon it 
within a fixed number of days, it becomes a law. The 
Governor may, however, veto the bill, that is, he may send 
it back with his objections stated in writing to that branch 
of the Legislature that sent it to him. The Legislature 
may then take another vote upon the bill, and if it again 
passes both Houses, it becomes a law in spite of the Gov- 
ernor's veto. But in order to pass it over the Governor's 
veto, it must, as a rule, get more than a bare majority of 
votes. In some States it must receive the votes of two 
thirds of the members present ; in others it must receive a 
majority of the votes of all the members elected. 

After a bill has gone through all the stages mentioned, 
after it has been passed by both Houses and has been 
signed by the Governor, it is assumed to be a law, and an 
attempt is made to enforce it. It is liable, however, to be 
declared to be unconstitutional. If, when the bill relating 



122 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

to railroad crossings has been passed, the railroad officials 
should object to laying their tracks as ordered, on the 
ground that the Legislature had no right to pass such a 
law, and should take the matter into court and the judge 
should decide that the Legislature had no such right 
under the constitution, then the law would be null and 
void, and the railroad companies would not be compelled 
to obey it. 

What the Legislature of a State may Do. — The best 
way to learn what the Legislature of a State may do, is to 
learn first what it may not do. First, it may not pass a 
law that is contrary to the constitution of the State. This 
point was illustrated in the last paragraph. Second, it 
may not pass a law contrary to the Constitution of the 
United States. When we come to study this Constitution, 
we shall learn that there are certain powers of government 
granted to Congress, the body that makes laws for the 
United States. For instance, one of the powers granted 
to Congress is to manage the post offices of the country. 
A State Legislature, therefore, has no right to make laws 
relating to post offices. Again, in the Constitution of the 
United States, certain things are mentioned which a State 
must not do. For example, a State must not coin money. 
Hence, a State Legislature has no right to establish a 
mint. Members of a State Legislature, then, should keep 
these two things in mind : First, they may not make laws 
contrary to the constitution of their own State ; and, 
second, they may not make laws contrary to the Constitu- 
tion of the United States. So long as it does not violate 
either of these two rules, a State Legislature is free to 



LESSON XXIII 123 

pass almost any law it pleases. It would take too long to 
name all the laws that can be passed, and that are passed, 
in the Legislature of a State. Sometimes at one session 
more than a thousand laws are passed. The following is 
a list of a few of the things done by a State Legislature : 

(i) It grants charters for the government of cities, 
boroughs, and villages ; it also grants charters to railroads, 
banks, colleges, and to many other institutions, public and 
private. 

(2) It makes laws regulating taxation, licenses, fees. 

(3) It defines the boundaries of counties and towns. 

(4) It makes laws for the punishment of crime, such 
as treason, murder, arson, theft, bribery, forgery, fraud, 
perjury. 

(5) It makes laws concerning property, such as relate 
to the sale of lands, the giving of mortgages, the granting 
of deeds, the making of wills, the settlement of the estates 
of bankrupts, the management of the estates of the dead. 

(6) It makes laws concerning education, charity, health, 
marriage, divorce. 

(7) It makes laws concerning the qualifications of 
voters and the time and manner of holding elections. 

(8) It makes laws governing railroads, steamboats, ca- 
nals, telegraph companies, telephone companies. 

(9) It makes laws regulating hunting, fishing, mining, 
manufacturing, trading. 

It is plain that most of the laws that regulate us in our 
daily conduct, and in our daily pursuits, are made by the 
State. 



124 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

Honest Men for the Legislature. — Since the duties of 
the State lawmaker are so many and his powers are so 
great, citizens should make every effort to elect only 
honest and intelligent men to the Legislature. There is 
good reason to believe that in some States bad men get 
laws passed for their own private benefit. They do this 
through bribery. They offer members of the Legislature 
some inducement to vote for a bill that is against the 
interests or the comfort of the great mass of people, and 
in the interest of their own selfish schemes. The voter on 
election day should think of this and try to prevent it. 
He should not vote to send to the Legislature a man who 
he believes can be bribed. Just as the happiness of the 
people of a city depends, in a great measure, upon the kind 
of men they send to the City Council, so the happiness of 
the people of a State depends, in a large measure, upon 
the kind of men they send to represent them in the State 
Legislature. If we can get good laws through the Legis- 
lature of our State, we have advanced a long way on the 
road to good government. 

The Initiative and Referendum. — In several States, as 
in South Dakota, Oregon, Utah, Oklahoma, Missouri, 
Maine, Colorado, and California, the voters, if they wish, 
may engage personally in the business of lawmaking. 
This they may do by making use of a device known as the 
" initiative and referendum." By this device a certain per 
cent of the voters may propose {the initiative) to the Legis- 
lature a bill which must be enacted into a proposed law 
and then referred back {the referendum) to the people to 
be voted upon. Also, where the initiative and referendum 



LESSON XXIII 125 

is in force, the voters may keep their eyes on the work 
of the Legislature, and if they desire they may demand 
the privilege of voting on any law that the Legislature 
has passed. These are the words of the constitution of 
Oklahoma : 

"The people reserve to themselves the power to pro- 
pose laws and to enact or reject the same at the polls 
independent of the legislature, and also reserve power at 
their own option, to approve or reject at the polls any 
act of the legislature." 

Constitutional amendments, as well as laws, are some- 
times adopted by means of the initiative and referendum. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 

1. Why are there two branches of the Legislature ? Why should 
a bill be passed in both Houses before it becomes a law ? Why should 
there be three readings of a bill ? 

2. What is the " pocket veto " ? When a Governor vetoes a bill, 
does he act as a legislative or as an executive officer of government ? 

3. If the Legislature of your State is in session, find out what im- 
portant measures are before it. Are you prepared to speak intelligently 
about any of these measures ? Have you in mind any law you would 
like to see passed ? How would you go about getting it passed ? 
What is the name of the senator who represents you in the Legislature ? 

4. With wdiat two documents should a member of the Legislature 
be familiar ? 

5. What difference do you observe in the powers of the Legislature 
and those of the City Council ? 

6. What is meant by " sumptuary laws " ? 

7. What is meant by the "lobby " ? 

8. In what way may men be bribed without actually giving them 
money ? 

9. If a Legislature consists of a body of rascals, whose fault is it ? 



LESSON XXIV 

THE GOVERNOR AND HIS ASSISTANTS 

" Strictly speaking, the Governor is not the head of the executive 
department, but a member of it. The executive department is par- 
celed out in several pieces, and his is one of the pieces." — John Fiske. 

The Governor. — As soon as the lawmakers have passed 
all the laws that seem desirable, they leave the capital and 
go to their homes. It is left to the officers of the execu- 
tive department to see that the laws are obeyed. At the 
head of this department stands the Governor, — the pilot of 
the ship of State. The Governor is elected by the votes of 
the people. His term of office in some States is for one 
year ; in others, it is for two years ; in others, it is for four 
years. In the constitutions of most States it is required 
that the Governor be at least thirty years of age, and that 
he shall have been a resident of the State for five years, 
before his election. His powers are great, but they are 
granted to him by the people, and if he abuses his power, 
he may be impeached. What are his powers and duties ? 

The first duty of a Governor is to see that the laws are 
faithfully executed. If he learns that the law is being vio- 
lated either by public officers or private persons, he must 
take steps to have the laws obeyed. To secure obedience 
he may call to his assistance judges and sheriffs and even 

126 



LESSON XXIV 127 

the soldiers of the State, for he is the commander in chief 
of the land and naval forces within the State. Sometimes 
when a mob is bent on destroying life and property, the 
Governor calls out the troops and sends them against the 
mob. When public business is to be conducted between 
one State and another, the Governor acts in the name of 
the State. It is the Governor's duty to send to the Legis- 
lature at the opening of the session a message. This 
message informs the Legislature of the condition of affairs 
throughout the State, and recommends the passage of such 
laws as the Governor thinks ought to be passed. The 
Legislature, however, is not bound to pass, or even to con- 
sider, the laws recommended in a message. In time of 
danger or pressing need, if the Legislature is not in ses- 
sion, the Governor may call it in extra session, so that it 
may at once pass such laws as the moment requires. The 
Governor, in many States, has the power to pardon crimi- 
nals. He may forgive the offense entirely and restore the 
criminals to freedom, or he may commute the punishment, 
that is, he may make it less severe. Sometimes, when a 
person is sentenced to be hanged, the Governor commutes 
the punishment to imprisonment for life. For a good 
reason he will reprieve or postpone the execution of the 
death sentence. In some States this matter of pardon, 
commutation, and reprieve is not left to the Governor, 
but is intrusted to a special body of officers, known as the 
Board of Pardons. 

Another power of the Governor is that of appointment. 
In all the States there are many officers who are not elected 
directly by the people, but receive their positions by ap- 



128 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

pointment. Many of these appointments are made by the 
Governor. In some States he has the appointment of the 
judges of the State courts, — a great responsibility. In 
nearly all the States he appoints the justices of the peace. 
When an elective official dies or resigns before his term 
ends, the Governor fills the vacancy by appointing some 
one to serve until another election is held. When an 
officer is guilty of misconduct in office, the Governor in 
most States may remove him and put a better man in his 
place. 

The above are a few of the powers of the Governor. In 
some States his power is much greater than in others. The 
question of the " power of the executive " is too difficult 
for you to discuss now, but when you grow up to be voters, 
you may have to decide whether it is better to give the 
Governor much power or to give him little. 

Other Executive Officers. — The Governor cannot attend 
to all the public affairs of a State. He must have assist- 
ants, just as the Mayor of a city has heads of departments 
to assist him. These assistants of the Governor are high 
executive officers of the State, and they are generally 
elected by the people. Below, you will find the names of 
most of them, with a short explanation of their duties : 

(i) The Lieutenant Governor. — A lieutenant is an officer 
who takes the place of a higher officer, when that officer 
is absent or cannot attend to his duties. Some States elect 
a Lieutenant Governor to serve when the Governor is out 
of the State or is unable to be at his post. The duties of 
the Lieutenant Governor are very few. We have seen 
that he has the right to act as the President of the State 



LESSON XXIV 129 

Senate ; but he has no vote in that body except when there 
is a tie, that is, when there is an equal number of votes for 
and against a measure. When there is a tie, the Lieuten- 
ant Governor decides the question by voting on one side or 
on the other. In such a case he is said to have the casting 
vote. 

(2) The Secretary of State. — This officer, sometimes 
elected, sometimes appointed by the Governor, is the 
highest clerk of the executive department. He has 
charge of State papers, of the Journals of the Legisla- 
ture, and of historical documents, statuary, paintings, 
relics, etc., owned by the State. If you will visit his 
office in the Statehouse, you may find some very inter- 
esting things there. 

(3) The State Comptroller. — A comptroller is a manager 
of accounts. The Comptroller of a State manages the 
financial business of the State government. He attends 
to business relating to the debt, the property, the claims, 
the revenue of the State. He superintends the collection 
of taxes due to the State, and examines the claims of those 
to whom the State owes money. When a debt of the 
State is to be paid, the Comptroller orders the State 
Treasurer to pay it. 

(4) The State Treasurer. — We have learned that when 
a town or a county collects money by taxation, a certain 
portion of the money must be given over to the State gov- 
ernment. This money is sent to the State Treasurer. He 
either keeps it in a large iron safe at the capitol or gives 
it to some reliable bank to keep. He cannot pay a dollar 
of it out without an order from the Comptroller. Like 

LESS. IN CIV. — Q 



i30 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

the other treasurers of whom we have spoken, the State 
Treasurer must give bond for the honest performance of 
his duties. 

(5) The Attorney-General. — This is the law officer of the 
State, corresponding to the prosecuting attorney of the 
county. When the State needs the services of a lawyer, 
he appears for it in the courts. When any executive 
officer of the State needs legal advice, the Attorney^ 
General is called upon for an opinion. 

(6) The Superintendent of Public Instruction. — This is 
the highest school officer of the State. He stands in the 
same relation to the counties of the State as the County 
Superintendent stands to the school districts of the county. 
The officers of the school district report to the County 
Superintendent and the County Superintendents report to 
the State Superintendent. In this way the State Superin- 
tendent keeps informed of the condition of all the schools. 
He prepares a report and sends it to the Legislature. In 
this report he states the needs of the schools and suggests 
how they may be improved. He presides at the meeting 
of County Superintendents and at teachers' institutes, and 
furthers the cause of education in whatever way he can. 

Impeachment. — If it is charged that a high officer of 
the State is guilty of misconduct in office, if, for example, 
the Governor is accused of having accepted a bribe for 
signing or for not signing a bill; or if a judge is accused 
of trying cases while he is drunk, the House of Represent- 
atives inquires into the charges, and if it finds that there is 
truth in them, it impeaches the offender, that is, it accuses 



LESSON XXIV 131 

him of official misconduct. The trial of the officer thus 
impeached is conducted by the Senate. That body listens 
to the evidence against the impeached officer, and if it 
regards him guilty, it pronounces judgment against him. 
An officer who has been found guilty under impeachment, 
can no longer hold an office of honor, trust, or profit in 
the State. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 

1. What is the name of the chief executive officer of your State. 

2. Examine the constitution of your State for answers to the follow- 
ing questions : 

(a) What are the qualifications of the Governor? 

{d) What is the length of his term of office? 

(c) What is his salary ? 

(^) Has he the power of veto? 

(e) Has he the pardoning power? 

(/) May he remove an inefficient officer? 

(j^) What officers does he appoint? 

(^) If there is no Lieutenant Governor, who will fill the vacancy if 
the Governor should die or resign ? 

3. Ought the Lieutenant Governor to preside in the Senate at the 
trial of a Governor, whom the House has impeached? 

4. When the Senate tries an impeachment case, does it act as a 
legislative or judicial body ? 

5. What are some of the qualifications of a good Governor? A good 
Comptroller? A good Attorney-General? A good State Superin- 
tendent of Instruction? 

6. Have you read a Governor's message? What is a Governor's 
"proclamation"? 

7. Does the constitution of your State provide for other executive 
officers not mentioned in the lesson? 



LESSON XXV 

JUDGES, JURIES, AND COURTS OF LAW 

"No man's property is safe, and no man's welfare is assured where 
justice is denied to the poor, or where crime goes unpunished ; no State 
can prosper where human rights are not respected." — David A. Wells. 

The Judicial Department. — You have learned how a 
law is made, and you have learned the names and duties of 
those officers who compel obedience to the laws. But 
before an officer can punish a person for disobeying the 
law, it must first have been decided that the one accused 
is actually guilty. You will remember that the decision of 
this question is left neither to those who make the laws, 
nor to those who are to enforce them, but to a third body 
of men, the judicial officers or judges of the State. Every 
State has a complete judicial system by which citizens 
may defend their rights and secure justice. It is this judi- 
cial system that we are now to study. We will begin with 
the lowest part of the system and proceed to the highest. 

The Justice of the Peace. — Let us suppose that a house 
has been burned in your neighborhood, and that a man 
named X is suspected of having burned it. Some citizen 
who is interested, perhaps the owner of the house, will file 
a complaint against X before a justice of the peace. This 
officer is usually appointed by the Governor, but is some- 
times elected by the people. In either case be is an officer, 

132 



LESSON XXV 133 

not of the town or city or county, but of the State, and he 
acts in the name of the State. He renders decisions only 
in small and unimportant cases. Thus, if a man is sued for 
a few dollars, or if he is arrested for drunkenness, or fast 
driving, his case could be decided before a justice of the 
peace. Returning to the case of house burning: When 
the complaint is filed against X, the justice of the peace 
gives a constable, or policeman, a warrant for the arrest of 
the accused, who is brought into the justice's court. Since 
X is charged with having committed an awful crime, — the 
crime of arson, — the justice cannot try his case. But he 
can do this : He can listen to witnesses for and against X, 
and if he believes that the accused is probably guilty, he 
may send him to jail to await trial in a higher court. But 
this trial may not come up in a higher court for several 
months, and if X is an innocent man, — and the law sup- 
poses he is innocent until he is proven guilty, — it would be 
a great hardship for him to have to lie in jail for so long. 
This he need not do if he can get bail. To give bail, he 
must get one or more of his friends to sign an agreement 
to pay the State a certain sum of money if he should fail 
to appear in court for trial when he is wanted. This 
agreement is a bond, and those who sign it are bondsmen. 
If X runs away before trial, he is said to **jump bail." 
Let us suppose he is able to give bail, and that he awaits 
his trial like a man. 

The Circuit Court. — The trial of X will take place be- 
fore the judges of the Circuit Court — in some States 
called the District Court, in others the Superior Court.^ 

- In a large city X would be tried before the Criminal Court. 



134 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

The judges of this court hold court in the courthouse of 
the county seat two or three times in a year. The samt 
judges may serve in several counties, going from one 
county to another. It is for this reason they are some- 
times called circuit judges. They are generally elected by 
the people, although in some States they are appointed by 
the Governor. In all cases, like justices of the peace, they 
act in the name of the State. 

Into this Circuit Court X is brought for trial. The 
crime that he is accused of is supposed to have been com- 
mitted not against the person whose house was burned, but 
against society, against the whole body of people, against 
the State. It is the State, therefore, that brings him to 
trial. The State's Attorney brings the case before the 
grand jttry, a body consisting of not less than twelve nor 
more than twenty-three citizens, whose business it is to 
find violators of the law and to present them to the court 
for trial. These grand jurymen summon the witnesses 
who will testify against X, but not those who will testify in 
his favor. If it is the opinion of at least twelve of the' 
grand jury that X ought to be tried for the burning of the 
house, the State's Attorney will draw up an indictment, 
containing the charges against him, and the foreman of the 
grand jury will write across the back of the indictment the 
words, "A true bill." This means that X must stand a 
trial in court. 

The examination by the grand jury was secret ; but the 
trial in court, is open to the public. When X is brought 
into court, the indictment is read to him, and he is asked 
whether he is "guilty" or "not guilty." His reply is 



LESSON XXV 135 

called a plea. If his plea is " guilty," the judge sentences 
him to be punished according to law. If his plea is ** not 
guilty," the judge appoints a time for his trial. The trial 
begins by the selection of twelve men to act as a jury to 
decide whether he is guilty or not. This is called the petit 
jury, or small jury, to distinguish it from the grand jury. 
The members of the petit jury, like those of the grand jury, 
are chosen from among the citizens of the neighborhood, 
— from farmers, mechanics, merchants. Some of them 
may be neighbors of X. Before they are allowed to serve, 
they must swear that they have not formed an opinion 
upon the guilt or innocence of the prisoner, and that they 
will decide the case according to the evidence that is pre- 
sented to them. After they have taken this oath, the jury- 
men sit in the "jury box" and listen to the testimony of 
witnesses. In a trial, there are always two parties, one 
called the plaintiffs who brings the complaint or suit into 
court, and another, called the defendant, or the one against 
whom the complaint is brought. In the case before us the 
State is the plaintiff, and X is the defendant. The State's 
Attorney, in behalf of the plaintiff, presents the case 
against the defendant and examines witnesses for the 
State. Another lawyer speaks in behalf of X and examines 
witnesses who have testimony in his favor. After the evi- 
dence on both sides has been heard, and after the judge 
has given his charge to the jury, directing them on some 
points of their duty, the jury retires to a private room to 
talk the matter over and come to a decision. If they can 
all agree, they return to the courtroom with their verdict. 
If the verdict is '' guilty," the judge will pronounce sen- 



136 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

tence upon the prisoner in open court and give him over 
to the sheriff for punishment; if the verdict is "not 
guilty," X is set free, and he cannot be tried again for 
the same offense. 

The Supreme Court. — If after X is sentenced, his law- 
yer can show that strict justice has not been secured, he 
may take the case to a higher court, usually called the 
Supreme Courts or Court of Appeals ^ — the highest court of 
the State. The judges of this court meet at the capital of 
the State and hear cases that have been tried in the court 
of law. The Supreme Court will not try the case of X 
over again, but it will listen to his appeal, and if it is shown 
that the judges in the court below did not try the case ac- 
cording to law, it will order a new trial and thus give X 
another chance for his freedom ; if it finds that the trial 
was properly conducted in the lower court, X will have to 
bear his punishment. 

Civil and Criminal Cases. — Cases that involve crime, 
like the case of X, are called criminal. Most of the cases, 
however, that are tried in courts do not relate to crime, 
but to the ownership of property. Such cases are called 
civil. The chief difference between a criminal and a civil 
case, is that in a criminal case the plaintiff is the State ; 
while in a civil case, the plaintiff is a private person or a 
corporation. The history of a civil case in the courts is 
quite like that of a criminal case. If the amount of prop- 
erty at stake is small, it may be tried before a justice of 
the peace. If the amount is large, the case is tried in 
the Circuit Court (or District Court), and if satisfaction is 
not obtained, then it may be taken to the Supreme Court 



LESSON XXV 137 



QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 

1 . Examine the constitution of your State for answer to the follow 
mg questions. 

(a) Are judges of the court elected or appointed? 

(d) What are the qualifications of a judge? 

{c) How long do they hold office? 

(d) What salaries are given to the different judges? 

(^) Name the different courts of the State. 

(_/") How may a judge be removed from his office? 

(g) Are justices of the peace elected or appointed? 

2. Can the people choose by their votes a better judge than the 
Governor can select? 

3. Why should the term of office of a judge be longer than that of 
other officers ? 

4. In what court would you sue a man for a debt of two dollars? 
For a debt of ten thousand dollars? In what court would a man 
accused of murder be tried ? A boy accused of disorderly conduct ? 

5. A man has been kept in jail awaiting trial. The trial proves him 
to be innocent. Has he any redress ? 

6. Which are the most important, good lawmakers, good executive 
officers, or good judges? 

7. What are some of the unpleasant things a judge is called upon 
to do? 

8. Write a description of the kind of a man you think would make a 
good judge. 

9. What are the advantages of trial by jury ? 



LESSON XXVI 

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 

^' Great were the hearts and strong the minds 
Of those who framed, in high debate, 
The immortal league of love, that binds 
Our fair broad Empire, State with State." — Bryant. 

Importance of State Government. — We have now studied 
the leading facts connected with several of the govern- 
ments by which we are controlled. We have studied the 
government of the family and learned the rights and du- 
ties of parents and children ; we have studied the gov- 
ernment of the school and learned the rights and duties 
of pupils and teachers ; we have studied the government 
of the city, county, and town, and have learned what are 
the powers and duties of the officers of these govern- 
ments; we have studied the government of the State, 
and have learned how State laws are made and enforced. 
We shall now take up the study of another government ; 
but, before we do this, I wish to say a few more words 
about the State government. 

Of all the governments we have studied, that of the 
State is by far the most important. Indeed, all the 
smaller governments depend upon the State government. 
The affairs of the home, the school, the county, the town, 
the township, the city, are all influenced greatly by the 

138 



LESSON XXVI 139 

government of the State. Think how much this means. 
It means that the State gives us nearly all the laws 
under which we live. It means, too, that everywhere 
in the different parts of this great country the people 
may have in a large measure just such laws as they like 
best. The people of Maine are not compelled to live 
under the same laws as the people of Mississippi. There 
are forty-eight States, and each State may have a consti- 
tution and laws to suit its particular case. Thus the 
people of each State have the right of local self-government. 
Just as in New England the people of each town manage 
their local affairs in their own way, so the people of each 
State conduct the public affairs of the State in their own 
way. It will help you to think clearly upon some important 
questions, to remember that a State, for most of the pur- 
poses of government, is a self-governing community. But 
it is not entirely independent. There is a government 
above it, — the government of the United States. 

The Articles of Confederation. — You know that after the 
thirteen colonies declared themselves independent of Great 
Britain, each colony was left a free and independent State, 
But the colonies could not get their independence without 
fighting for it, and they could not fight successfully unless 
they all fought together. They understood this perfectly 
well, and during the seven years of war with England they 
joined hands and kept them joined until the enemy was 
conquered. But when the war was over, and England had 
acknowledged their independence, each State began to 
think more of its own interests and to care very little for 
union. In 1783 the thirteen States were held together by 



I40 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

the Articles of Confederation, a form of government that 
had been adopted during the war. Whatever may have 
been the value of these Articles in times of danger from a 
foreign foe, in times of peace they served no useful pur- 
pose. They gave Congress a right to make certain useful 
laws, but they gave it no power to enforce those laws ; 
they gave it the right to declare war, but they did not give 
it the right to compel men to serve in the army ; they gave 
it the right to borrow money, but they did not give it the 
right to raise money by taxation in order to pay the debt. 
In other words, the government of the United States un- 
der the Articles of Confederation was a legislature only : 
it lacked the executive and judicial powers. It was like a 
three-legged stool with two legs gone. Of course, such a 
government could not be respected. Yet the people of the 
States felt there ought to be union, and that there ought 
to be a general government that would have power enough 
to make itself respected. What prevented such a union } 
It was the pride and jealousy of the States. Each State 
was free to do just as it chose, and if a strong union was 
formed, some of the freedom would have to be surrendered. 
Things went from bad to worse under the Confederation. 
Congress was mobbed at one time by a crowd of drunken 
men ; soldiers who had served in the war clamored for 
their pay, but there was no way to raise money for them. 
One State quarreled with another.^ Washington and 

1 The condition of affairs under the Confederation has been described by 
Mr. Fiske in his " Critical Period of American History." You should read 
this book and learn what would be the danger and evils if each State were 
allowed to do entirely as it pleased. 



LESSON XXVI 141 

Madison and Hamilton and other statesmen saw these 
evils and took steps to remedy them before it was too late. 

The Constitutional Convention of 1787. — It was one of 
the evils under the Confederation that the people of the 
different States could not trade freely with each other. 
The New Jersey farmer could not carry his produce into 
New York without first paying a tax upon it. Each State 
had its own customhouse, and collected taxes upon goods 
brought from foreign countries and turned the money into 
its own treasury. This made the burden of taxation un- 
equal in the different States. With the purpose of remedy- 
ing this state of things, and taking measures to make the 
laws of trade uniform, a convention was called to meet at 
Annapolis in 1786. But, as only five of the thirteen States 
responded to the call, the delegates thought it unwise to 
proceed further with the business. They did, however, 
make a report, requesting the States to send delegates to 
another convention that should meet in the following year. 
With this request all the States, excepting Rhode Island, 
complied. 

In May, 1787, delegates from twelve States met in Phila- 
delphia for the purpose of amending the Articles of Confed- 
eration in such a manner as to correct the evils of which 
we have spoken. In this convention were some of the ablest 
men our country has produced. There were Washington 
and Madison and Hamilton and Franklin. These men 
did not work for their own selfish interests, or even for the 
advantage of a particular State, but for the advantage of 
all the States. The sessions of the convention were 
secret, but we know most of the things that were said 



142 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

and done in it. It soon agreed that the government un- 
der the Confederation was weak and worthless, and that 
an entirely new form of government was necessary. It 
saw that, instead of a Confederation of the States, there 
ought to be a union of the people. How was this to be 
accomplished ? It could not be accompHshed without the 
States giving up some of their rights, and would they 
be willing to do this.!* Most of the members thought 
the States would. For four months the subject was de- 
bated, and at last a Constitution for the government of 
the United States was agreed upon. Probably no one in 
the Convention thought the proposed Constitution was 
perfect. The words of the aged Franklin, who had worked 
all his long life for union, will give us an idea of the spirit 
in which the work of the Convention was done. When 
the labors of the Convention were over, and the members 
were about to adjourn and go home, Franklin arose and 
said : " I consent to this Constitution because I expect no 
better, and because I am not sure it is not the best. I 
hope, therefore, that for our own sakes, as part of the peo- 
ple, we shall act heartily and unanimously in recommend- 
ing it wherever our influence may extend, and turn our 
future thoughts and endeavors to means of having it well 
administered." 

The Constitution proposed by the Convention was sent 
to the several States for their approval. In almost every 
State it met with fierce opposition. The new government, 
it was claimed, would crush out the rights of the States, 
and destroy the freedom of individuals. But the Consti- 
tution had strong supporters, and one by one the States 



LESSON XXVI 143 

voted to accept it. It was provided that when nine States 
approved of it, it should go into effect. By July, 1788, it 
had been approved by nine States, and it, therefore, be- 
came a law of the land. Two States, North Carolina and 
Rhode Island, refused to accept it, and remained out of the 
Union for some time. If these States had so desired, they 
could have remained out until this day, and they would 
now be foreign countries. In 1789, however. North Caro- 
lina joined the Union, and in 1791 Rhode Island did like- 
wise. The government under the new Constitution began 
to transact business in New York in April, 1789. In 1790 
the seat of government was removed to Philadelphia, and 
in 1800 to Washington, which has remained the capital of 
the United States. The Constitution framed by the Con- 
vention of 1787 is the Constitution under which we live 
to-day. We shall now study this important document. 
You will find a copy of it in almost any school history of 
the United States. 



LESSON XXVII 

THE NATIONAL LEGISLATURE 

"The American Constitution is, so far as I can see, the most won- 
derful work ever struck off at a given time by the brain and purpose of 
man." — William E. Gladstone. 

The Preamble to the Constitution. — The Constitution of 
the United States will remind you of your State Consti- 
tution. It provides for a government of three depart- 
ments, the legislative, the executive, and the judicial, and 
it contains a Bill of Rights. It begins with a few words 
called the preamble^ which state the reasons for forming 
a national government. The words of the preamble 
are: 

"We, the people of the United States, in order to form 
a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic 
tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the 
general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to 
ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this 
Constitution for the United States of America." 

If you have studied the last lesson carefully, you will 
understand the preamble. The States were disunited, 
were jealous of each other and quarreled with each other; 
the Constitution proposed to form a " more perfect union." 
When quarrels arose between a State and a citizen of 
another State, or between citizens living in different States, 

144 



LESSON XXVII 145 

there was no good way of settling the dispute ; the Con- 
stitution proposed to "estabUsh justice," by organizing a 
system of courts in which such disputes might be settled. 
There had been rebellion and serious uprisings in some 
of the States; the Constitution proposed to have "do- 
mestic tranquillity " — peace at home. Under the Articles 
of Confederation, the defense against the attacks of In- 
dians, or even against a foreign foe, depended largely 
upon the resistance of the particular State that suffered ; 
the Constitution provided for a ** common defense," that 
is, it proposed to support a national army, which should 
be ready at any time to defend a single State or all the 
States against an enemy. Before 1787 each State made 
laws to suit its own local interests, without regard to the 
interests of other States ; the Constitution proposed to 
make laws that would ** promote the general welfare" — 
the welfare of all the States. In the words of the pream- 
ble are wrapped up all the purposes and objects of the 
government that meets at Washington. You should learn 
the preamble by heart. 

Congress. — The most important department of a gov- 
ernment is its lawmaking body. For this the Constitu- 
tion provides first. It provides that laws of the national 
government shall be made by a body called a Congress, 
and that the Congress shall have two branches, a Senate 
and a House of Representatives, just like the Legislature 
of a State. This Congress every year, on the first Mon- 
day in December, meets in the magnificent Capitol at 
Washington; the Senate at one end of the building, the 
House of Representatives at the other end. 

LESS. IN CIV. — lO 



146 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

You should try to visit Washington when Congress is 
in session, for it is an impressive sight to see a body of 
men making laws for a great nation. 

The House of Representatives. — It is the purpose of the 
Constitution that the will of the people shall be expressed 
in the House of Representatives. Hence, members of 
this branch of Congress are elected by a direct popular 
vote, and each State is represented according to its popu- 
lation. During the first years of national government 
a State was allowed one representative for every 30,000 
inhabitants. If this number had remained unchanged, the 
House of Representatives would now consist of over 
3000 members, and would be a body much too large for 
the transaction of business in a deliberate way. But it 
has not remained unchanged ; as population has increased, 
the number of inhabitants for each representative has 
been made larger. At the present time each State is 
allowed to send one representative for every 211,877 
inhabitants. This gives Delaware one member in the 
House, and New York forty-three members. The repre- 
sentatives from all the States number 435. Each State 
is divided by its Legislature into a number of Congres- 
sional Districts y each district containing, as near as may 
be, 211,877 inhabitants, so that it may be entitled to one 
representative. Thus Iowa, with 2,224,771 inhabitants, 
is divided into eleven Congressional Districts, and is en- 
titled to eleven members in the House of Representa- 
tives. 

The House of Representatives, upon meeting, organizes 
in very much the same way that the lower house in a 



LESSON XXVII 147 

State Legislature is organized. A Speaker, a Clerk, a 
Sergeant-at-Arms, and Committees are elected. 

The Senate. — The States are represented in Congress 
by senators. It was the purpose of those who framed the 
Constitution to preserve the power and dignity of the 
State as far as possible. For this reason one State is as 
well represented in the Senate as another; each State, 
whether great or small, being entitled to two senators. 
Nevada, which has a population of less than 100,000, has 
as much power in the Senate as has New York, with a 
population of about 10,000,000. This, at first sight, may 
seem to you to be unjust, but the more you study the sub- 
ject the more reason you will see for the law. Probably 
the only way to enable the smaller States to preserve their 
rights is to give them equal power with the larger States 
in the Senate. Senators are not elected by the people but 
by the Legislatures of the different States. The election 
is so arranged that when a new Congress meets only one 
third of the Senate can consist of new members. As 
there are now forty-eight States, the Senate consists of 
ninety-six members ; and sixty-four or more of these are 
experienced lawmakers. 

How a Law is passed in Congress. — A law is passed in 
Congress in almost the same way that one is passed in 
the Legislature of a State. A bill is introduced into one 
of the Houses, is referred to its proper Committee, is 
reported upon, is read three times upon three different 
days, is voted upon, and if it receives a majority of votes, 
is sent to the other House, where it has almost the same 
history. If it passes in this House, also, it is sent to the 



148 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

President for his approval. If he approves the bill, he 
signs it and it becomes a law. If he does not approve it, 
he vetoes it ; that is, he returns it to the House without 
his signature and with his objections. If two thirds of the 
members of each House still vote for the bill, notwith- 
standing the objections of the President, it becomes a law 
without his approval. 

EXERCISE 

(By examining the second and third sections of the first Articles of 
the Constitution you will be enabled to fill the blanks properly.) 

A member of the House of Representatives is elected to serve for 
years. No person can be elected in this branch of Congress un- 
less he is at least years of age and has been a of the 

for at least years. He must also reside in the in vi^hich he 

is elected. A senator of the United States is elected by the of 

a to serve for years. He must be at least years of 

age, and must at the time of his election have been a of the 

in which he is elected. Both senators and representatives are privileged 
from while in attendance upon . 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the names of the senators who represent your State in 
Congress ? 

2. How many representatives does your State send to Congress ? 
In what Congressional District do you live ? What is the name of your 
representative ? 

3. In 191 2 Congress, by a two-thirds vote of both branches, submitted 
to the States for ratification an amendment to the Constitution, provid- 
ing for the election of United States senators by a direct vote of the 
people. Ought this amendment to be ratified ? 



LESSON XXVIII 

WHAT CONGRESS MAY DO 

The Power of Congress Limited. — What are the powers 
of the national lawmaking body described in your last 
lesson ? A glance at history will help you to understand 
this question. You remember that after the Declaration 
of Independence each State was practically a free and 
independent republic, and had in itself all the power of 
government. There was nothing that a government can 
wisely do that the government of a State could not do. 
The States were proud of this great power. Like indi- 
viduals they loved their pride and their will. Now, when 
the Union was formed, in 1787, it was necessary to give 
up some of this power. But the States were careful to 
give up as little power as possible, and they were ex- 
tremely careful to have it understood just what powers 
they meant to give up, and to reserve for themselves all 
powers that they did not give up. Therefore, certain 
definite powers of the new government were plainly 
stated. These powers it might exercise, and no others. 
All powers not granted to the general government were 
reserved to the States. The answer to the question, 
'•' What can Congress do > '' is this : It can do what it 
is written in the Constitution it can do, and it can do no 
more. The answer to the question, "What can the Legis- 

149 



150 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

lature of a State do ? " is this : It can do anything that is 
not contrary to the constitution of the State, or to the 
Constitution of the United States. In other words, Con- 
gress is a lawmaking body with limited powers. 

The Powers of Congress. — You will find most of the 
powers of Congress stated in the eighth section of the 
first article of the Constitution. This section says that 
Congress shall have power : 

(i) ** 7J? collect taxes,'' for the support of the national 
government. It takes an immense sum of money to sup- 
port the national government. The salaries of several 
hundred thousand officials and the pensions of about a 
million of old soldiers, and soldiers' widows, must be 
paid ; costly public buildings in Washington and custom- 
houses and post-offices in large cities must be built ; ex- 
pensive war ships and fortifications must be maintained ; 
an army and a navy must be supported. To do all this 
requires over ^800,000,000 per year. Congress raises 
most of this enormous sum in two ways : First, it levies 
a tax called a duty, or tariff, upon goods brought into this 
country from foreign countries. This duty is collected 
at customhouses situated in the great cities. Second, it 
levies a tax, called the internal revenue tax, upon liquors 
and tobacco manufactured within the United States. 

(2) " To borrow money!' when the government is pressed 
for cash. When an individual borrows money he gives 
the lender a note stating the amount loaned, the time of 
payment, and the rate of interest that is to be paid. In 
the same way, when a government borrows money it gives 



LESSON XXVIII 151 

to the lender its printed notes. The notes thus issued by 
a government are called bonds. The United States has 
borrowed in this way vast sums of money. When the 
Civil War was over, its debt was nearly ;^ 3, 000, 000, 000. 
This has been reduced to somewhat less than ;^2,ooo,~ 

000, OCX). 

(3) " To regulate commerced — Under this power Con- 
gress places heavy duties upon certain classes of imported 
goods so that our own goods of the same kind may be 
protected against the competition of the foreign market. 
People who believe in keeping out foreign goods in this 
way are called "protectionists." Those who believe in 
allowing foreign goods to come in without being taxed, 
are called ''free traders." When you become voters you 
will probably be called upon to decide either for protection 
or for free trade. Congress further regulates commerce 
by registering American vessels, providing for lighthouses 
and life-saving stations along the coast, and improving 
harbors and opening rivers to navigation. 

(4) " To establish a tmiform rule of naturalization^ — In 
a former lesson you learned what is meant by naturaliza- 
tion. The laws relating to this subject must be made by 
Congress. 

(5) '^ To establish uniform laws on the subject of bank- 
ruptcies throughout the United States ^ — When a person 
owes more money than his property is worth, he is a 
bankrupt. The creditors of a bankrupt have a right to 
take such property as he has, and divide it fairly among 
themselves. If Congress so chooses it has the right to 
make the laws regulating bankruptcies. 



152 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

(6) " To coin money'' — Before the Constitution was 
adopted there was great confusion in the kind of money 
in use. No two States had coins of the same size and 
value. They used foreign money chiefly. Few States 
had mints. The Constitution took the right of coining 
money away from the States and gave it to Congress. 
Under this power Congress has estabhshed in different 
parts of the country mints where gold, silver, nickel, and 
copper coins are made. Since a coin of a given denomi- 
nation is always of the same weight and fineness, it circu- 
lates freely in any part of the Union. 

(7) " To fix the standard of weights and fneasures^ — A 
yardstick should be just as long, and a pound weight just 
as heavy in Pennsylvania, as the one or the other is in 
California, and Congress has the right to require that this 
shall be the case. In point of fact, however. Congress 
has not exercised this right very fully. The national 
government presents a full set of weights and measures 
to the government of each State, and the State adopts 
these as correct. Thus throughout all the States mer- 
chants use standard weights and measures. 

(8) " To provide for the pimishme^tt of counterfeiting the 
securities and current coin of the United States'' — A per- 
son convicted of counterfeiting the money of the United 
States may be fined five thousand dollars, and imprisoned 
for ten years. 



LESSON XXIX 
WHAT CONGRESS MAY DO (Continued) 

Congress has power : 

(9) ** To establish post offices and post roads ^ — It is 
through the post office that the naiional government meets 
the citizen in his daily life. Letter carriers and post- 
masters are officers of the United States. It is plain that 
the States could not attend to the carrying of the mails. 
The government of the State of Maine could not well fol- 
low a letter addressed to a town in Oregon. 

(10) " To promote the progress of science and useful arts 
by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the 
exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries^ 
— Authors are encouraged to write good books by giving 
them a copyright upon their works. The person who has 
a copyright upon a book is the only one who can print 
and sell it. A copyright lasts for twenty-eight years. It 
is secured by entering the title and sending two copies of 
the printed book to the Librarian of Congress in Wash- 
ington. Congress encourages useful inventions by %x'a.n}i- 
m.g patents to inventors. A patent upon a machine gives 
the one who holds the patent the exclusive right to make 
and sell or use the machine. Rights under a patent last 
for seventeen years. The inventor sends drawings and a 

>S3 



154 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

model of his invention to the Commissioner of Patents at 
Washington, and if it is found that he has invented some- 
thing really new a patent will be granted. 

(ii) "7b constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme 
Court r — This will be explained when we come to the 
judicial department of the national government. 

(12) ^^ To define and punish piracies and felonies com- 
mitted on the high seaSy and offenses against the law of 
nations'' — Piracy is robbery upon the sea. The national 
government punishes pirates because their crime is com- 
mitted outside of the boundary of a State. When a 
citizen commits an offense against a foreign nation the 
injured nation regards the offender as a citizen of the 
United States, and not as a citizen of a State. It is 
the national government, therefore, that must punish pira- 
cies and offenses against the laws of nations. 

(13) " To declare war, grant letters of marque and repri- 
sal ^ and make rules concerning captures on land and water'' 
— As the evils of war would fall on many States, it is not 
right that a single State should be allowed to declare war. 
War, therefore, can only be declared by Congress, and 
conducted by the national government. Sometimes Con- 
gress grants to private persons the right to go and seize 
certain property belonging to a foreign country. Such a 
commission, called a letter of marque and reprisal, cannot 
be granted by a State. When in times of war valuable 
property is captured, the prize must be divided among the 
captors according to the direction of the national govern* 
ment. 

(14) " To raise and support armies." 



LESSON XXIX 155 

(15) " To provide and maintain a navy^ 

(16) ''^ To make rules for the regulation of the land and 
naval forces'* 

(17) ^^ To provide for calling forth the militia to execute 
the laws of the Union . . . and repel invasion'' — The 
regular or standing army of the United States consists of 
about 60,000 soldiers. In times of peace this number is 
large enough, but in times of war, it is, of course, too 
small. When the national government needs a large 
army for the defense of the country, Congress may call 
out the militia of the States. The militia of a State con- 
sists of all its able-bodied male citizens between the ages 
of eighteen and forty-five. The law usually excuses the 
civil officers of government, clergymen, teachers, physi- 
cians, and firemen from military service. With these ex- 
ceptions, every strong man in the country is a member of 
the militia, and may be called upon to serve in the army. 
Thus it is in the power of Congress to raise an immense 
army for the support of the national government and for 
the defense of the nation against a foreign enemy. 

(18) " To provide for organizing ^ arming and disciplin- 
ing the militia^ and for governing such part of them as may 
be employed in the service of the United States T 

(19) " 7> exercise exclusive legislation'' over the Dis- 
trict of Columbia. Under this rule the people of the Dis- 
trict of Columbia, which includes the city of Washington, 
have no voice in the government of their city. Congress 
acts as a kind of City Council for the government of 
Washington. It appoints three Commissioners who con- 
duct the public business of the District. 



156 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

(20) " The Congress may determine the time of choosing 
the electors for President and Vice President of the United 
States.'' — This will be explained when we come to speak 
of the election of the President. 

(21) '' The Congress may by law provide for the case of 
removal^ deaths resignation, or inability , both of the Presi- 
dent and Vice Presidents — Under this power, in 1886, 
Congress passed a law providing that if both President 
and Vice President die, the Secretary of State shall act as 
President ; if the Secretary of State dies, the Secretary of 
the Treasury shall act as President; and so on down 
through the Cabinet, the Secretary of War coming third, 
the Attorney-General fourth, the Postmaster-General fifth, 
the Secretary of the Navy sixth, the Secretary of the In- 
terior seventh. 

(22) " New States may be admitted by the Congress into 
this Unions — Under this power Congress has admitted 
thirty-five States since the formation of the Union. 

(23) " The Congress shall have power to . . . m,ake all 
needful rules and regulations respecting'' Territories. — A 
Territory is governed under a Territorial Law, passed by 
Congress. Its Governor, judges, and other chief officers 
are appointed by the President of the United States. It 
is entitled to send to Congress a delegate, who may speak 
upon questions relating to his Territory, but may not vote. 
When the people of a Territory desire to be admitted into 
the Union as a State, a petition is sent by the Territorial 
Legislature to Congress. If Congress thinks that the 
Territory has a sufficient number of people and are capa- 
ble of governing themselves as a State, it passes a law 



LESSON XXIX 157 

giving to the voters of the Territory the right to elect 
members to a Constitutional Convention. The members 
of this convention meet and frame a constitution for the 
new State, and submit it to the voters of the Territory for 
their approval. If the proposed constitution receives a 
majority of the votes, it is sent to the President of the 
United States, who, if he finds in it nothing contrary to 
the spirit of our institutions or to the Constitution or laws 
of the land, issues a proclamation admitting the Territory 
into the Union as a State. Under their new State con- 
stitution the people have more of the rights of self-govern- 
ment than they had when they were a Territory. As a 
member of the Union, the new State shares in the election 
of a President, it sends two senators to the United States 
Senate and it is entitled to representation in the House 
of Representatives according to its population. Nearly all 
the Territories have been admitted as States. Besides 
Alaska, the only Territory that now remains is Hawaii. 
But Porto Rico and the Philippines have governments 
somewhat like that of a Territory. 

(24) " The Congress shall have power to make all laws 
which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execu- 
tion the foregoing powers . . . " — This has been called 
the "elastic clause" of the Constitution, because the 
words " necessary and proper " may be stretched to 
mean almost anything. Under this power Congress has 
passed laws that many people think it had no right to 
pass. The intention of the clause was to give Congress 
the right to pass such laws as were necessary to accom- 
pUsh the objects for which the Constitution was framed. 



LESSON XXX 

WHAT THE CONSTITUTION FORBIDS 

What Congress may not Do. — In order to guard the 
interests of the States, the framers of the Constitution 
were careful to mention certain things that the national 
government may not do. What these things are may 
be found in the ninth section of the first article of the 
Constitution. 

(i) Slavery. — The first prohibition refers to the impor- 
tation of slaves, but as slavery has been abolished we may 
pass this subject by. (See Article XIII. of the Amend- 
ments.) 

(2) The writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended. 

(3) a. 'No dt// 0/ attainder shall he passed. This means 
that Congress may not condemn a person to death, or to 
outlawry and banishment, without opportunity for defend- 
ing himself in a court of law. 

d. No ex post facto law shall be passed. An ex post 
facto law establishes or increases the penalty of an act 
after it has been committed. For example, if Congress 
should pass a law establishing the penalty of death upon 
a man found guilty of counterfeiting money a year ago, 
such a law would be ex post facto, for at the time when 
the crime was committed the penalty for counterfeiting 

158 



LESSON XXX 159 

was only fine and imprisonment. Let your teacher pass 
an ex post facto law, and you will readily see the wisdom 
of forbidding such laws. 

(4) ^^ No capitatio7i or other direct tax shall be laid 
unless in proportion to the census or enumeratiofi herein- 
before directed to be taken'' — This means that if Congress 
should pass a capitation, or poll tax, it must be the same 
in all States. If a direct tax on property should be laid 
by Congress, it would have to be apportioned among the 
States in proportion to their populations. Thus, if the 
United States Government should raise $35,000,000 by 
a direct tax, the property holders of Georgia would pay 
about ;^ 1,000,000 of the sum, for the population of this 
State is about one thirty-fifth of the entire population of 
the Union. 

(5) ^^ No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported 
from any State. No preference shall be given by any regu- 
lation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over 
those of another'' — This clause compels Congress to treat 
all the States alike in the matter of indirect taxes. 

(6) " No m.oney shall be drawn from the treasury but in 
consequence of appropriations made by law, and a regular 
statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all 
public money shall be published from time to time" — Not 
one dollar can be taken from the treasury until Congress 
has passed a law stating the uses to which it is to be put. 

(7) " No title of nobility shall be granted by the United 
States'' — Such titles as Prince, Duke, Earl, etc., are not 
in keeping with democratic government, and very properly 
they cannot be conferred by Congress. 



1 60 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

(8) ^^ No person holding any office of profit or trust . . . 
shall, without the consent of Congress , accept of any present, 
emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any 
king, prince, or foreign state '^ 

What a State may not Do. — The makers of the Con- 
stitution took the greatest pains to make clear the powers 
of the national government, and to define its relations 
to the State government. In section eight, of the first 
article, the Constitution tells what Congress may do; in 
section nine it states what Congress may not do ; in sec- 
tion ten it tells what a State may not do. You will notice 
that the things a State is forbidden to do are either the 
things that the national government is given the right to 
do, or they are those things that Congress is forbidden to 
do because it is not right that any government should do 
them. Thus, no State shall coin money, for it is the busi- 
ness of the United States to coin money; no State shall 
pass any ex post facto law, because such a law should not 
be passed by any government. 

The Fifteen Amendments. — Some of the most important 
provisions respecting the powers of the national govern- 
ment are to be found in the Amendments to the Constitu- 
tion. (In Article V. you may learn how the Constitution 
is amended.) The people of the States in the early years 
of our history were fearful lest the national government 
should have too much power, and they hastened to secure 
amendments that would preserve all needful rights to the 
States, and that would bind the hands of Congress if it 
attempted to encroach upon their rights. Of the fifteen 



LESSON XXX l6l 

amendments that have been made since 1789, ten were 
added within three years after the Constitution was 
adopted. These amendments should be studied care- 
fully, for they are really our national '' Bill of Rights." 
The rights mentioned in these amendments are also men- 
tioned in our State constitutions, and are the rights enjoyed 
by American citizens. As you read these amendments 
and learn what are your rights as a citizen, do not forget 
your duties. If it is your right to worship as you please, 
it is your duty not to persecute in any way those whose 
religion is different from your own ; if it is your right to 
express your opinion freely, it is your duty to allow your 
neighbor to express his opinion without attempting to 
punish him for so doing. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 

1 . Find authority in the Constitution for the following things that 
Congress has done : 

(«) It supports a National Museum. 

(d) It maintains a Naval Academy at Annapolis. 

(c) It appropriates money for the support of agricultural colleges. 
(^) It supports life-saving stations along the seacoast. 

(e) It bought Louisiana of France and Alaska of Russia. 

(/) It appropriates money for the relief of sufferers in flooded districts. 

2. Name some of the things Congress can do under the following 
powers : 

(a) Its power to declare war. 

(d) Its power to maintain a navy. 
(c) Its power to borrow money. 
{d) Its power to coin money. 

(e) Its power to admit Territories as States. 

(/) Its power to regulate commerce with foreign nations. 
(^) Its power to provide for the general welfare. 

LESS. IN CIV. — II 



LESSON XXXI 

HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED 

" Sir, I would rather be right than be President." — Henry Clay, 

The Nomination of a President. — Article II. of the 
Constitution refers to the quaUfications, election, and pow- 
ers of the President, the head of the executive department 
of the national government. How is this great official 
chosen ? How do the 100,000,000 people of our great Re- 
public select one of their number as a ruler.? As an 
intelligent citizen you should be able to give a clear an- 
swer to this question. 

The election of a President is conducted by political 
parties. Before a man can hope to be President, he must 
be named as the candidate of a great party. Among the 
millions of voters in a great political party, there are many 
public men who are eager to be its candidate for President. 
The first question to be answered then is : How is the 
presidential candidate of a political party selected } How, 
for illustration, does the Democratic party select its candi- 
date } The first step is taken several months before the 
election in November. In April or in May, the party 
holds its (i) Primary ^ or first election. At this election the 
Democratic voters of a township or of an election district, 
choose three or four or five of their number to go as dele- 

162 



LESSON XXXI 163 

gates to a county Democratic convention. These delegates 
may go instructed to act in the interest of a certain man as 
the party candidate for President, or they may go free to 
act as their judgments direct. In a few days after the 
primary election the delegates from all the election districts 
of the county assemble (usually at the county seat) as the 
(2) Democratic Coimty Convention. This body, consisting 
of thirty or forty men, elects three or four or five delegates 
to go to a State Convention. ^ If the majority of the dele- 
gates in the County Convention were in favor of a certain 
man for president, it is likely that the delegates of the 
State Convention will be in favor of the same man. A few 
weeks after the holding of the County Convention, dele- 
gates from all the counties assemble at some convenient 
place, as (3) Democratic State Convention. This body, 
consisting sometimes of several hundred men, passes reso- 
lutions expressing the political views of the party in the 
State, names its choice for presidential candidate — if it 
happens to have a choice — and elects delegates to the 
Democratic National Convention. The number of dele- 
gates sent to represent a State in the Democratic National 
Convention, is twice the number of the representatives of 
the State in the National Congress. In most of the States, 
however, the State convention elects only four delegates 
(called delegates at large) to the National Convention ; the 
other delegates being elected at Congressional District 
Conventions. By June or July all the State Conventions 
have been held, and delegates have been elected to the 

1 In a city each ward sends delegates to a city convention, and this body 
elects delegates to the State Convention. 



1 64 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

great (4) Democratic National Convention. This body, 
consisting of more than a thousand men, representing all 
parts of the country, meets in some convenient city in the 
central part of the United States. After several days of 
discussion, and after adopting a platform expressing the 
views of the party upon public questions, it elects the 
Democratic candidate for President and for Vice President. 
In almost the same way, beginning with the primary elec- 
tion, and advancing to the County, State, and National 
Conventions, the Republican Party and People's Party 
and Prohibition Party select their presidential candidates. 

Direct Primaries. — Candidates for State and local offices 
are also named by conventions. In many States, however, 
candidates are no longer nominated by conventions but by 
a direct primary vote. In these States when a party 
wishes to nominate a candidate for sheriff, for example, 
the voters of the party vote for the candidate of their 
choice at primary elections held throughout the county, 
and the candidate who wins at the primaries becomes the 
regular party candidate. If a candidate for Governor is to 
be chosen, the voters of the party throughout the State ex- 
press their choice of candidates at primaries, and the can- 
didate successful at the primaries is regarded as the regular 
party candidate for Governor. 

In some States the system of direct primaries has been 
adopted in nominating a candidate for the presidency. In 
such States, presidential primaries are held and voters are 
given an opportunity to express by direct vote their prefer- 
ence in respect to presidential candidates, and to choose by 
direct vote the delegates sent to the national convention. 



LESSON XXXI 165 

Election of President. — After all the political parties 
have named their respective candidates for President, the 
campaign begins. Political meetings are held, at which 
orators set forth the claims of their candidates and defend 
the platform of their party ; in the cities processions march 
through the streets with great display of banners, torches, 
and fireworks, while bands of music play spirited airs ; 
everything that can be done to influence voters is done. 
The campaign continues until election day, the first Tues- 
day after the first Monday in November. On this day 
every fourth year about fifteen millions of citizens go to 
the polls to express their choice for President. But they 
do not vote for a President directly ; they vote for a set of 
men called Electors, whose duty is to vote for a President 
and Vice President. Each State is entitled to a number 
of electors equal to the number of its senators and repre- 
sentatives in Congress. Delaware, having one representa- 
tive and two senators, is entitled to three electors ; New 
York, having forty-three representatives and two senators, 
is entitled to forty-five electors. There are in all the 
States five hundred and thirty-one presidential electors. 
The names of the State electors of each party are printed 
on the ballot under the party name, and those who receive 
the highest number of votes are elected and are morally 
bound to vote for the candidate of the party that elected 
them. The successful electors of each State meet on the 
second Monday in January following the election, and vote 
for President and Vice President. The result of this vote 
is sent in a sealed envelope to the President of the Senate 
at Washington. On the second Wednesday of the follow- 



1 66 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

ing February, the President of the Senate, in the presence 
of both Houses of Congress, opens the envelopes contain- 
ing the electoral vote of the different States, and the votes 
are counted. The person who has a majority (266 or more) 
of the votes cast for President, is declared to be elected 
President of the United States, and the person who has a 
majority of the votes cast for Vice President is declared to 
be elected Vice President of the United States. (See Con- 
stitution, Article XII. of Amendments.) It has happened 
twice in our history that no candidate had a majority of all 
the electoral votes. When this is the case the House of 
Representatives chooses a President and the Senate a 
Vice President. When electing a President, the House 
must choose from the three highest on the list of the per- 
sons voted for by the electors, and it must vote by States, 
the majority of representatives from each State casting 
one vote for their State, and the representatives of two 
thirds of the States must take part in the election. The 
successful candidate must receive a majority of the votes 
of all the States. When the Senate is obliged to elect a 
Vice President, it proceeds on the same principles. 

Inauguration. — On the fourth of March the newly 
elected President and Vice President begin their duties. 
In the presence of a vast throng of citizens the Chief Jus- 
tice of the United States administers to the President- 
elect the following oath : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) 
that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the 
United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, 
protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." 
The President then delivers his inaugural address, from 



LESSON XXXI 167 

the eastern steps of the Capitol, outlining his policy and 
stating his ideas upon public questions. After this inaugu- 
ration he is driven to the executive mansion, generally 
known as the *' White House," where he resides during 
his term of office, and where you may some day see him 
and shake hands with him. 



EXERCISE 

(By examining Article II. of the Constitution, the pupil may learn how 
to fill the blanks properly.) 

Both President and Vice President hold their position for years. 

No person may be President who was not born in the , and who is 

not years of age at the time of his , and who has not been a 

resident within the for years. If a President should be re- 
moved from his office or should or or be to discharge 

the powers and duties of his , the position of shall be filled by 

the . The President receives a salary for his , but this 

must not be or during his term of . He must not re- 
ceive any other compensation than his either from the , or 

any •. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 

1. What is the salary of the President? Of the Vice President? 

2. Ought the President to be elected directly by the people? 

3. How many Presidents have been elected a second time? What 
are the objections to electing a President for a third term ? 

4. How many votes were cast for presidential electors at the last 
election ? 

5. Is it possible for a man to be elected president without receiving 
a majority of the votes of the people ? 

6. What are the qualifications for the office of Vice President? 



LESSON XXXII 

THE PRESIDENT AND HIS CABINET 

"The President is strong because he represents the people." 

— Bryce. 

The Powers and Duties of the President. — The President 
does for the United States what a Governor does for one 
of the States — he takes care that the laws are faithfully- 
executed. His powers and duties are stated in the second 
and third sections of Article II. of the Constitution. He 
is commander in chief of all the troops in the service of the 
United States, although in times of war he may not appear 
personally upon the field of battle. He may pardon crimi- 
nals convicted for offenses committed against the United 
States. He may make a treaty with a foreign country 
providing two thirds of the members of the Senate vote for 
it. A treaty is an agreement between two nations to do or 
to refrain from doing certain things. It may be to make 
war upon a third nation, or to maintain peace, or to regu- 
late commerce or the carrying of mails, or for any other 
purpose. It is through treaties that the different nations 
of the world attempt to secure the good will of each other, 
and the responsibility of making them rests with the Presi- 
dent and the Senate. A most important duty of the Presi- 
dent is to select proper men to fill the many offices under 
the national government. However, as you see in the 

i68 



LESSON XXXII 169 

Constitution, many of the appointments made by the 
President must secure the consent of the Senate. When 
the Senate is not in session the President may fill a va- 
cancy without waiting for its consent. At the beginning 
of a session of Congress the President sends to that body 
a message, in which he calls attention to the needs of the 
country and suggests such legislation as seems to him 
necessary. Congress is not obliged to follow the sugges- 
tions of the President's message any more than the Legis- 
lature of a State is obliged to follow the suggestions 
contained in a message from the Governor. When Con- 
gress is not in session and it seems necessary that certain 
laws should be passed as quickly as possible, the President 
may call an extra session, just as the Governor of a State 
may call an extra session of the Legislature. 

The Cabinet. — The President is responsible for the 
management of the entire business of the executive de- 
partment. This means that he is responsible for the man- 
agement of foreign affairs, which includes the making of 
treaties, the appointing of ministers and consuls to serve in 
foreign countries and instructing them in their duties, the 
reception of foreign ministers in Washington, the giving of 
passports to those who wish to travel abroad, the protec 
tion of American citizens in other lands, and all other 
business that arises between our government and other 
governments. He is responsible for the collection of taxes 
and the expenditure of money appropriated by Congress 
and the management of the public debt ; for the manage- 
ment of the Indians, the sale of public lands, the payment of 
pensions, the taking of the census, the granting of patents; 



I/O LESSONS IN CIVICS 

for the management of the army with its officers and 
troops and forts and equipments and military schools ; for 
the management of the navy with its fleets and forts and 
training schools ; for the management of the national 
courts with their marshals and attorneys; for the man- 
agement of the vast business of the post office with its post 
office buildings and postmasters, letter carriers and clerks. 
Of course, the President cannot superintend all this busi- 
ness in person. Like the executive of any large govern- 
ment, like the Governor of a State or the Mayor of a city, 
he must have a body of able assistants. This business of 
the national government is divided into nine departments, 
and at the head of each department the President places a 
man who he thinks is competent to manage its affairs. 
The nine officers placed at the head of the great depart- 
ments are known as the Cabinet. The Cabinet is responsi- 
ble to the President, and whenever he wishes to confer with 
it or to get its advice, he summons it to the White House, 
where its meetings are held. No record is kept of the 
Cabinet meetings, and the public does not know what takes 
place at them. The President is not bound to act accord- 
ing to the wishes of the Cabinet, but it is not probable that 
he often acts contrary to its decision. The names of the 
departments with the titles of the Cabinet officers, are : 

(i) The Department of State, under the management 
of the Secretary of State, who is at the head of foreign 
affairs. 

(2) The Treasury Department, under the management 
of the Secretary of the Treasury. 



LESSON XXXII 171 

(3) The Department of War, under the management of 
the Secretary of War. 

(4) The Post Office Department, under the management 
of the Postmaster-General. 

(5) The Department of the Navy, under the manage- 
ment of the Secretary of the Navy. 

(6) The Department of the Interior, under the manage- 
ment of the Secretary of the Interior, who has charge of 
Indian affairs, pensions, patents, the sale of public lands. 

(7) The Department of Justice, under the management 
of the Attorney-General, who gives the government written 
opinions upon questions of law and represents it in the 
national courts. His office is like that of the Attorney- 
General of a State. 

(8) The Department of Agriculture, under the manage- 
ment of the Secretary of Agriculture, whose duty is to 
promote the interests of farmers. 

(9) The Department of Commerce and Labor, under 
the management of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, 
whose duty is to promote the interests of trade and of 
workingmen. 

The Civil Service. — In all the departments mentioned 
above, there are employed nearly 400,000 persons. In the 
Post Office Department alone there are more than 200,000 
people employed in collecting, carrying, and distributing 
the mail. All servants of the national government, ex- 
cept members of Congress, army and navy officers, and 
soldiers and sailors (in the naval service), belong to the 
Civil Service. All the vast army of officers and employees 



1/2 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

are appointed either directly by the President or by the 
heads of the departments. In order to help in the work 
of securing proper persons for the departments a Civil 
Service Commission has been established. It is the duty 
of this body to examine those who wish employment with 
the government and to report on the fitness of the 
applicants. 

QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL WORK 

1. Study sections two and three of the second article of the Con- 
stitution, and make out a list of the powers and duties of the President. 

2. What is the salary of a Cabinet officer? 

3. To what department ot the national government would you take 
the following matters : 

{a) A claim for a pension. 
{b) A complaint against the pest office. 
{c) A request for a passport in foreign countries. 
(^d) An application for admission to West Point. 
( ^ ) An application for a patent. 
(/) A theft of United States bonds. 

{g) A request for information regarding the best method of curing 
a disease in cattle. 

4. How would you proceed if you wished to get a position as a 
clerk in the customhouse ? 

5. What is meant by the words : " To the victors belong the 
spoils " ? 

6. What is meant by "Civil Service Reform" ? 

7. Are the people whom you know generally in favor of the merit 
system ? 



LESSON XXXIII 

THE NATIONAL COURTS 

" The Supreme Court is the living voice of the Constitution, that is, 
of the will of the people expressed in the fundamental law they have 
enacted. It is the conscience of the people who have resolved to re- 
strain themselves from hasty or unjust action by placing their repre- 
sentatives under the restriction of a permanent law."— /^»z<fj Bryce. 

The Kind of Cases tried in the National Courts. — The 

third article of the Constitution describes the powers and 
the nature of the judicial department of the national 
government. The courts of a State try those cases that 
arise under the laws and constitution of the State, while 
the courts of the general government try those cases that 
arise under the Constitution of the United States, and the 
laws passed by Congress. A man charged with the crime 
of burglary would be tried in one of the courts of the State 
in which the crime was committed ; for the laws against 
burglary are passed by the legislatures of the States. A 
man charged with counterfeiting money would be tried in 
one of the national courts ; for the laws against counter- 
feiting are passed by Congress. A person charged with 
breaking a street lamp would be tried in a State court, for 
his offense concerns a State ; but a person charged with 
robbing a letter box attached to a lamp-post, would be 
tried in a court of the United States, for his offense con- 

»73 



174 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

cerns the national government. Again, the national 
courts may try those cases that arise between citizens of 
different States, if either party to the case so desires. 
Also when a dispute arises between two States, it is settled, 
not in a State court, but in the national court. If such 
a case were left to the courts of one of the States to be 
decided, the other State, if the decision went against it, 
would in all probability be dissatisfied. Still another class 
of cases tried in the national courts consists of those in 
which one of the parties is a foreigner. If a foreign 
country has a grievance against one of the States it must 
try its case in the courts of the United States, for the 
nation and not the State is responsible to foreign gov- 
ernments. Likewise, if a citizen of another country has a 
grievance against a State, or against one of its citizens, he 
may bring suit in a national court. In the case of am- 
bassadors and their families and attendants, when any 
trouble arises, the matter must be taken directly to the 
Supreme Court of the United States. Under this rule, if 
a servant of an ambassador should steal a pound of sugar 
or should be charged with disorderly conduct, his case 
would have to be tried before the highest court of the 
United States. This great respect is shown to foreign 
ministers in order to avoid giving offense to the govern- 
ments which they represent. 

The Three Grades of National Courts. — For the trial of 
such cases as have just been mentioned, the government 
of the United States supports a system of courts somewhat 
similar to those supported by a State. The judges of all 
these courts are appointed by the President, and they 



LESSON XXXIII 175 

all hold their office for life. There are three grades of 
national courts, and three grades of judges, — district, cir- 
cuit, and supreme. 

The lowest court of the system is the ( i ) District Court} 
which is presided over by a District Judge. In every 
State there is at least one District Court. The larger and 
more populous States have two or more District Courts ; 
altogether there are more than ninety District Judges in 
the United States. These lowest courts try all crimes 
committed against the United States, and they try such 
civil cases as may properly be tried in national courts. In 
the District Court are tried patent and copyright cases, 
counterfeit cases, cases arising under the postal laws, and 
other classes of cases arising under laws passed by Con- 
gress. When a case has been tried in the District Court 
and either of the parties to the case is not satisfied with 
the result, it may be taken, that is, appealed, either to the 
Supreme Court of the United States, or to the Circuit 
Court of Appeals, a court established in 1891 to do part of 
the heavy work of the Supreme Court. An appealed case 
is carried to the Supreme Court {a) when it involves a 
question of jurisdiction, that is, a question as to what court 
the case ought to be tried in ; {b) when it involves the con- 
struction of the Constitution of the United States ; (<;) when 
it involves a question of the constitutionality of a law, that 
is, whether the law. State or national, agrees with the 
Constitution of the United States ; (<^) when it is a case 
of conviction for some great crime ; ie) when it involves 

1 The pupil should be careful not to confuse the District Courts of the 
national system with those courts of the same name in the State system. 



1/6 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

the construction of a treaty. In other cases than those 
mentioned, an appeal must be taken from the District 
Court to the Circuit Court of Appeals. 

For the trial of certain classes of cases upon appeal, 
Congress has established nine great judicial circuits and 
has provided for each circuit a court known as a (2) Cir- 
cuit Court of Appeals. This court is composed of regular 
Circuit Judges and of judges of the other courts. Three 
judges are necessary for the trial of a case, and one of the 
three may be a Justice of the Supreme Court who is as- 
signed to the circuit. A judge, however, who has tried a 
case in the District Court cannot sit at the trial of the 
same case in the Circuit Court of Appeals. The Circuit 
Court of Appeals tries only those cases that are brought 
to it upon appeal from the District Court. 

The highest court in the United States system is the 
(3) Supreme Court, which sits at Washington. It consists 
of a Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices. In cases 
affecting ambassadors and consuls, and those in which a 
State is a party, it has original jurisdiction. This means 
that these cases must be tried for the first time in the Su- 
preme Court. The chief business of this great court, how- 
ever, is to try the cases that are appealed to it from the 
lower courts. The Supreme Court is the most exalted and 
in some respects the most powerful body in the United 
States. It acts as the guardian of the Constitution. If 
Congress or the Legislature of a State passes a law that 
is unconstitutional, it declares that law null and void. If a 
State court renders a decision that conflicts with the Con- 
stitution or with a law of the United States, the Supreme 



LESSON XXXIII 177 

Court may overrule the decision. It may pass judgment 
upon all questions of law or of fact that are appealed to it 
and that it chooses to consider. 

Note. — The salaries of the principal officers of the National Gov- 
ernment are as follows : 

President $75,000 

Vice President 12,000 

Members of the Cabinet 12,000 

Chief Justice of Supreme Court i5>ooo 

Associate Justices of Supreme Court .... i4)50o 

Judges of Circuit Courts 7,000 

Judges of District Courts 6,000 

Representatives 7?5oo 

Senators 7^5^^ 



QUESTIONS 

1 . Name three of the most important decisions that have been made 
by the Supreme Court in the history of our country. 

2. Name two of the most celebrated men who have served as Chief 
Justices of the Supreme Court. 

3. Study the third article of the Constitution for answers to the 
following questions : 

(a) How long does a judge of a federal court hold office? 
(d) Can Congress reduce the salaries of the present judges? 

(c) In what court would a charge against a consul of a foreign coun- 

try be brought ? 

(d) In what court would a man be tried for robbing a post office? 
{e) In what court would a suit between a State and a citizen of a 

foreign country be tried ? 

4. Use the words " State " and " federal " properly in the following 
passage : 

There are less than a hundred and fifty judges, and there are 

many thousands of judges. " A large majority of the cases at law 

are tried in courts. If only laws are involved in the case, the 

LESS. IN CIV. — 12 



178 LESSON IN CIVICS 

courts can have nothing to do with it. Ordinary crimes, such as 

assault, theft, and murder, can be tried only in courts. In like 

manner nearly all cases arising in the administration of school laws, 
laws concerning paupers, highways, taxation, the laws for the gov- 
ernment of cities and the holding of elections, are triable in the 

courts alone. It is only when some provision of the constitution, 

or some act of the United States Government is involved that a 

court can act." — Macy. 



LESSON XXXIV 

POLITICAL PARTIES 

" A political party is a body of men united for promoting by their 
joint endeavors the national interest upon some particular principle in 
which they are all agreed. Party division, whether in the whole oper- 
ating for good or evil, are things inseparable from free government." — 
Edmund Burke. 

What Political Parties are for. — In the lesson about the 
election of a President, it was said that no one can hope to 
be chosen to that high office unless he is first the choice 
of a great political party. What is true of the highest 
officer is for the most part true of the lowest. If a man 
wishes to be elected to an office, whether of the city or 
county, or State, or nation, he must secure his election 
through a party. Moreover, if a citizen, or a large num- 
ber of citizens, wish certain laws to be passed, or desire 
the government to adopt a certain policy, they must rely 
upon a party to bring about what they wish. If there is 
no party in existence that will aid them in securing what 
they wish, they must form a party of their own. How 
may they do this } Let us, for illustration, suppose that a 
large number of people believe that war is always wrong, 
and that our government should make no further prepara- 
tion for war, that the land forces should be disbanded, 
that the ships of the navy should be disarmed, and that 

179 



l80 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

the military and naval schools should be closed. At pres^ 
ent there is no party that looks with favor upon such 
views. Our peace-loving citizens, if they wish the govern- 
ment to adopt their policy, must form a party of their own 
and through this party get control of the machinery of 
government. In order to do this they will have to organ- 
ize^ that is, they will have to form in bodies, elect officers, 
and agree upon certain lines of action, and appoint com- 
mittees to do certain things. All great parties are thor- 
oughly organized. In every township, ward, county, and 
State, there are regularly chosen permanent committees 
to whom certain party work is given to be done, and by 
whom the life of the party is sustained from election to 
election. We have seen how the great task of nominating 
a President is accomplished through party organization. 
The citizens of a city or of a State, then, who are most 
enthusiastic for peace will organize. They will meet and 
form a peace society, electing officers, enrolling members, 
and taking measures to secure new members. Similar 
societies will soon be formed in other States. If the peace 
sentiment in the country is quite strong, and these peace 
societies are quite numerous, it will not be long before the 
different societies will send delegates or representatives to 
a general association or convention. This convention 
may decide to enter politics. If so, it will state its politi- 
cal principles in a declaration called a platform, and will 
nominate candidates for office who are favorable to a 
policy of peace. In this way a new political party, a 
peace party, will be formed. Everybody who believes 
that government should pursue a policy of peace will now 



LESSON XXXIV l8l 

have an opportunity to express his views by voting for the 
candidates of the new party. If these candidates shall 
receive a number of votes sufficient to elect them, they 
will become a part of the government, and they will be 
morally bound to carry out, as far as they are able, the 
principles of the party that elected them. Thus, it is 
through party organization that the will of the people is 
expressed, and thus far no other way of expressing that 
will has been discovered. 

The Choice of a Party. — Every young man upon com- 
ing of age is called upon to vote for one of the great 
parties. Of course he will wish to vote for the best party. 
How shall he decide which is the best.? He should not 
vote for a party merely because his father votes for it, or 
because he hopes to secure an office at its hands, but 
should vote for the one that he thinks will act for the best 
interest of the country. He should make a careful study 
of the history and principles of all the great political 
parties, and learn what each has already done for the 
country, and what each proposes to do, and then decide 
for himself which one he will vote for. The principles of 
party may be found in its platform. A very good way for 
a young man to choose his party would be for him to 
decide (without having the party name before him) which 
of the platforms of the great political parties contains the 
best principles, and choose the party that declares for 
those principles, no matter what may be its name. 

Loyalty to Party. — After a man has voted for and 
worked with the same political party for some years he 
becomes attached to it, and it is difficult, sometimes, for 



1 82 LESSONS IN CIVICS 

him to vote for any other party. He becomes a party 
man — a partisan. If he leaves his party he is pretty 
sure to oftend his party associates, who call him traitor or 
mugwump, or some other harsh name. Yet there are 
times when it is the duty of a good citizen to vote against 
his party. When he believes the principles of his party 
are no longer good for his country, or when he is asked 
by it to vote for dishonest or dangerous or incompetent 
men, it is his plain duty to refuse to do so. In such a 
case he is called upon to decide, not between one party 
and another, but between a party and his country. It is a 
question of patriotism, or love of country. In times of 
war a man's love for his country is tested by his willing- 
ness to fight and die for it, but in times of peace his pa- 
triotism is tested by his willingness to vote rights whatever 
may be his interests or prejudices, or party ties.^ 

1 An excellent history of parties is Johnston's " American Politics.*' 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Administrator, 85 
Admission of States, 1 56 
Admitted States, 106 
Age of Voters, 45 
Agriculture, Department of, 171 
Aldermen, 98 
Aliens, 39 

Naturalization of, 40, 47 
Amendments to Constitution, 1 60 

to State Constitution, III 

to a Bill, 120 
Appeal of Cases, 136 
Appeals, Circuit Court of, 175, 176 

Court of, 136 
Apportionment to House of Represen- 
tatives, 146 

to State Legislature, 116 
Appropriations, 159 
Armies, Power of Congress to raise, 154 
Articles of Confederation, 139 
Assembly, 115 
Assessors, 62 

of Town, 79 

of Township, 91 
Assistance of Parents, 24 
Attendance of Pupils, 34 
Attorney-General, 130 
Attorney, State's, 87 



Auditor of County, 86 

of Township, 91 
Australian System, 51, 52 



Bail, 133 

Ballot, 51 

Bankruptcy, 15 1 

Bill, Amendment to, 1 20 
of Rights, 109, 161 
Passage of, 1 19-122 
Readings of, 120 

Board of Aldermen, 98 
of Education, 30 

Borough, 95 

Bribery, 52, 57 

By-laws, 78 



Cabinet, 169 
Campaign, Political, 1 64 
Capital, 114 
Capitol, 114 
Capitation Tax, 159 
Cases, Civil, 136 

Criminal, 136 
Census, 116 

Chairman of Senate, 1 18 
Charter, Definition of, 96 

Village, 95 



18s 



1 86 



INDEX 



Children, Support of, 22 
Chinese, 40 
Circuit Court, 133 

of Appeals, 176 
Cities, Growth of, 93 
Citizen, Meaning of, 39 
Citizens, Rights of, 41-60 
Citizenship, 38 
City Council, 98, 99 

Courts, 10 1 

Government, 98-IOI, I02 

Hall, 98 
Civil Cases, 136 

Rights, 41 

Service, 171 
Clerk of County Court, 85 

Town, 79 

Township, 90 
Collector of Taxes, 63, 86, 91 
Colonies, Government of, 104 
Columbia, District of, 155 
Commerce regulated by Congress, 
Commission City Government, 98 
Commissioners, County, 83 
Committee of Legislature, 117 

of School, 30 
Common Pleas, Court of, loi 
Commutation, Power of, 127 
Comptroller, 129 
Conduct of Pupils, ^^ 
Confederation, Articles of, 139 

Weakness of, 140 
Congressional District, 146 
Congress, 145- 161 

Branches of, 145 

Election of President by, 165 

Extra Session of, 169 

Power of, 145-157 

to admit New States, 156 

to constitute Courts, 154 



51 



Congress, to call forth Militia, 155 

to discipline Militia, 155 

to establish Post Office, 153 

to establish Post Roads, 153 

to govern Territories, 156 

to punish Piracy, 154 

to regulate Election of President, 
156 

Time and Place of Meeting, 145 
Constables, 80, 91 
Constitution, Meaning of word, 108 

Amendment to State, iii 

Amendment to, 160 

Adoption of, 142 

Description of, 109 

of the State, 108-112 

United States, 144-176 

Formation of, 144 
Constitutional Convention, 1 10 
Constitutional Convention of 1787, 

141 
Constitutional, the word discussed, 

112 
Control of Self, 1 7 
Convention, Constitutional, IIO 

County, 163 

National, 163 

of 1787, 141 

State, 163 
Copyright, 153 
Coroner of County, 86 
Counterfeiting, Punishment of, 152 
County Government, 82-87 

Auditor, 86 

Commissioners, S$ 

Convention, 163 

Coroner, 86 

Officers, 83-87 

School Board, 87 

Seat, 83 



INDEX 



187 



County Treasurer, 86 

of Virginia, 82 
Court of Appeals, 136 
■ Circuit, 133 

City, 1 01 

Common Pleas, loi 

Criminal, 10 1 

Justice of Peace, 132 

National, 173-176 

Orphans', 85 

Police, loi 

Supreme, of State, 136 

United States District, 175 

United States Circuit, of Appeals, 
176 

United States Supreme, 176 
Criminals, 48 
Criminal Courts, loi 



Declaration of Rights, 109 
Defendant, 135 
Defense of Country, 57 

of Self, 42 
Delegates, House of, 115 
Democracy, 72 

Democracy, Representative, 72 
Departments of Agriculture, 171 

City, 100 

Government, 73 

Interior, 171 

Judiciary, 132 

Justice, 171 

Navy, 171 

State, 170 

War, 171 
Direct Primaries, 164 
District, Congressional, 146 
District Court, 133 



District Court of United States, 175 

School, 29 
Domain, Eminent, 69 
Duties and Excises, 66 
Duties of Parent, 22 

Pupils, 35, 36 

School Officers, 31 

Teachers, 31, 35, 36 
Duty, 56 



E 

Education of Children, 23 

a Qualification of Voting, 47 
"Elastic Clause," 157 
Election by Plurality, 53 

how conducted, 50 

of Members of Legislature, 115 

Primary, 162 

of President, 162 

of President by House of Repre- 
sentatives, 166 
Election Officers of Township, 92 
Electors, 45 
Eminent Domain, 69 
Examiners of Schools, 87 
Excises, 66 
Executive Department of Government, 

73 
Officers of State, 128-130 
Attorney-General, 130 
Comptroller, 129 
Treasurer, 129 

Superintendent of Schools, 130 
Exemption, 64 
Exports, Tax on, 159 
Ex post facto Law, 158 
Extra Session 

of Congress, 169 

of State Legislature, 127 



i88 



INDEX 



Family, 21-28 

Government, 22, 28 

in Ancient Times, 21 
Father, Power of, 21 
Fees, 68 

Fence Viewers, 80 
Field Drivers, 80 
Franchises, 68 
Functions of City Government, loi 



Government 

City, 98-102 

Colonial, 104 

County, 82-87 

Departments of, 73 

Family, 22-28 

Local, 139 

Meaning of word, 13 

Necessity of, 15 

Representative, 71 

of Self, 17, 19 

of Schools, 29-37 

of the State, 103-136 

Study of, 13 

Town, 75-81 

Township, 89-92 
Governor of a State, 126-128 

Extent of Power of, 128 

Message of, 127 

Powers of, 126 

Veto, 121 
Grand Jury, 134 

H 

Habeas Corpus, 43, 1 58 
Suspension of, 43 



Honesty in Public Office, 99, 124 
House of Delegates, 115 
House of Representatives, 115, 146 
Husband, 25 



Impeachment, 130 

Inauguration of President, 166 

Income Tax, 67 

Indictment, 134 

Initiative and Referendum, 124 

Interior, Department of, 171 



Journal of House of Representative! 

117 
Judge, Circuit, 134 

of Elections, 50 
Judicial Department, 73 

of State, 132 

of Nation, 173-177 
Jurisdiction, Original, 176 
Jury, Grand, 134 
Jury, Petit, 135 
Justice, Department of, 171 

of Peace, 132 



Law, how made, 1 19-122 

How passed in Congress, 147 
Made by State Legislature, 123 
Nature of, 15 
Obedience to, 56 

Legislative Department, 73 

Legislature of State, 1 14-124 
Election of Members, 115 
Organization of, 117 

Liberty, Personal, 42 



INDEX 



189 



Licenses, 68 

Lieutenant Governor, 118, 128 
Living, Earning a, 58 
Local Self-government, 139 
Loyalty to Party, 181 

M 

Majority, 53 

Marque and Reprisal, 1 54 

Marriage, 25 

Mayor, Duties of, lOO 

Message of Governor, 127 

of President, 169 
Militia of a State, 155 

Power of Congress to call forth, 155 
Mistress and Servant, 27 
Money, Power of Congress to coin and 
to borrow, 152 



N 



National Convention, 164 
National Courts, Cases tried in, 173 

Four Grades of, 174 
National Government, 138 
Naturalization of Aliens, 40, 47 

Regulated by Congress, 151 
Navy, Department of, 171 

Maintained by Congress, 155 
Nobility, Title of, 159 
Nomination of President, 162 



Obedience to Law, 56 

of Children, 23 
Office, Right of holding, 53 
Officers, County, 83-87 

State, 126-130 



Officers, Town, 78-80 

Township, 90-92 
Ordinance, 98 
Organization of Parties, 180 

of State Legislature, 117 
Original Jurisdiction, 176 
Orphans' Court, 85 
Overseers of Poor 

of Town, 79 

of Township, 92 



Pardon, Power of, 127 
Parents, Duties of, 22 

Rights of, 23 
Parties, Organization of, 180 

Political, 179-182 
Partizanship, 182 
Party, Choice of, 181 
Loyalty to, 181. 
Patents, 153 
Paupers, 48 
Personal Security, 41 
Petit Jury, 135 

Piracy, punished by Congress, 154 
Plaintiff, 135 
Platform, Party, 180 

Political, 164 
Plea of Prisoner, 135 
Pleas, Court of Common, lOI 
Plurality, 53 
Police Courts, loi 
Police Justices, loi 
Political Campaign, 164 

Parties, 179-182 

Questions, 59 

Rights, 41 
Polling Booth, 51 
Polls, 50 



IQO 



INDEX 



Poll Tax, 46, 68, 159 

Posse Comitatus, 85 

Post Office Department, 171 

Post Roads, 153 

Powers of Congress, 149-157 

of Governor, 126 

of State Legislature, 123 
Preamble to Constitution, 144 
Presents from Foreign Sources, 160 
President, how elected, 162-166 
President, Inauguration of, 166 

Message of, 169 

Nomination of, 162 

Powers and Duties of, 168 

Veto, Power of, 148 

Who succeeds, 156 
Primary Election, 162, 164 
Progressive Income Tax, 67 
Property, Personal, 61 

Private, 44 

Qualification of Voting, 46 

Real, 61 
Pupils, Attendance of, 34 

Conduct of, 33 

Duties of, 35, 36 

Rules for, 33 



Qualifications of U. S. Senator, 148 

of Voters, 45 
Quorum, 117 



Reading of a Bill, 120 

Recall, 74 
Referendum, 124 
Registration, 48 
Representation, 72 



Representation, Method of, 116 

in National Congress, 146 

of Towns, 81 
Reprieve, Power of, 127 
Reputation, 42 
Residence of Voters, 46 
Rights, Civil and Political, 41 

of Holding Office, 53 

Political, 41 

Private Property, 44 



Salaries of U. S. Officers, 177 
School Board, 87 

Committee, 30, 31 

Directors, 30 

Directors, Township, 90 

District, 29 

Government of, 29 

Officers, 30 

Superintendents, 87 

Trustees, 30 

Visitors, 30 
Secretary of State, 129 
Security of Person, 41 
Selectmen, 78 
Self-control, 17 

Cultivation of, 18 
Self-government, 70, 71 
Self-respect, 19 
Senate of State, 115 

of United States, 147 
Senator, State, 115 

of United States, 147 
Sergeant-at-Arms, 1 1 7 
Servants and Mistr-^ss, 27 
Servants, Rights of, 26 

Treatment of, 26 
Service of Children, 23 
Service, The Civil, 171 



INDEX 



191 



Session, Extra, 127 

Sex of Voters, 46 

Share of Taxes, 62 

Sheriff, 84 

Slander, 42 

Slavery, 158 

Speaker of House of Representatives, 

117. 147 
State, Beginnings of the, 105 

Constitution of, described, 109 

Government, Importance of, 138 
State Legislature, 114-124 

Honesty in, 124 

Powers of, 123 

Two Branches of, 114 

What forbidden to do, 160 
State Senate, 115 
State Senators, 115 
States admitted, 106 
States, Thirteen original, 104 
State's Attorney, 87 
Studies, Course of, 34 
Suffrage, Right of, 45 
Superior Court, 133 
Superintendent of Public School, 87, 

130 
Supervisors of Townships, 90 
Supreme Court of State, 136 

of United States, 176 
Surveyors of Highways, 80 
Suspension of Habeas Corpvis, 43 



Tardiness, 33 
Taxation, 61-69 

Indirect, 66 

Property, Exempt from, 64 
Tax, Assessor, 62 

Capitation, 159 



Tax Collector, 63 

Collector of Township, 91 

Defined, 61 

Direct, 159 

Dodgers, 64 
Taxes, Power of Congress to Collect. 

150 

Taxpayer's Share, 62 
Teacher, Duties of, 31, 35, 36. 
Territories, How governed, 1 57 
Town, 75-81, 95 n. 

Clerk, 79 

Constables, 80 

Government, 75 

Hall, 77 

House, 77 

Meeting, 77 

Officers, 78-80 

School Committee, 79 

Selectmen, 78 

Support of Schools, 79 
Township, 89-92 

Assessors, 91 

Auditor, 91 

Clerk, 90 

Election Officers, 92 

Government, 89 

Justice of the Peace, 91 

Officers, 90-92 

Overseers of Poor, 92 

School Directors, 90 
Treasurer of County, 86 

of State, 129 

of Town, 79 
Treasury Department, 170 
Treaties, 168 
Truancy, 34 
Trustees of the School, 30 

of Townshfip, 90 
Tun Moot, 75 



192 



INDEX 



u 



United States, Beginnings of, 138-143 

Congress, 144-157 

Senator, 147 
" Unconstitutional," Meaning of the 
word, 112 



Verdict, 135 

Veto of Governor, 121 
of Mayor, 100 
of President, 148 

Village Charter, 95 
Government, 93 

Virginia, the County, 82 

Visitors of School, 30 



Voters, Qualifications of, 45 

Residence of, 46 

Sex of, 46 

Who are, 45 
Voting, Methods of, 52 

W 

War, 57 

Declared by Congress, 154 

Department of, 171 
Warrant, Definition of, 92 
Washington, Government ofj J 55 
Weights and Measures, 152 
Wife, 25 

Rights of, 26 
Wills, Register of, 86 
Writ, 91 



SUPPLEMENT' 



5>»^C 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 

To Teachej's. — The subjects in the regular text of this book should 
be taught in connection with the corresponding subjects of the Sup- 
plement. Lessons V and VI should be taught in connection with the 
section on Education (page 231) ; Lessons VII and VIII in connection 
with the section on The Rights and Privileges of the Pennsylvania Citi- 
zen (page 211) ; and so on. The sections in the appendix faithfully 
supplement the Lessons. If the questions following the Lessons are 
answered as fully as the Supplement offers an opportunity for them to 
be answered, the work on the State government will be thorough. 

I. TOWNSHIPS 

Classification. — Townships, boroughs, cities, and coun- 
ties in Pennsylvania are all governed according to laws 
passed by the Legislature, but the State Constitution pro- 
vides that laws in reference to these local governments 
must be general. If a law is passed in reference to town- 
ships, it must affect all the townships in the State alike. 
The Legislature may not treat one township in one way, 
and another in another way, but it may divide townships 
into classes, and provide for a different form of govern- 

1 Prepared with the assistance of Jesse H. Michener, Ph.D., Supervising 
Principal of the Norris J. Hoffman combined Grammar and Primary School, 
Philadelphia, and Thomas Vale, Esq., of the Cumberland County Bar. 



Copyiight, 1902, 1912, by American Book Company. 

CCU320084 
7<^ I 



194 SUPPLEMENT 

ment for each class, and it has done this. It has de- 
clared that townships with a population of at least three 
hundred to the square mile shall be townships of the first 
class, and that all others shall be townships of the second 
class. 

The officers^ of townships of \\\^ first class (with terms as fixed by 
the constitutional amendments of 1909)^ are as follows: (i) Five or 
more township commissioners, elected by the voters of the township for 
a term of two years; (2) a treasurer, (3) an assessor, (4) three audi- 
tors, (5) a tax collector, (6) a constable, each elected for a term of four 
years ; (7) two justices of the peace, elected for a term of six years. 
(8) The clerk of a township of the first class is appointed by the town- 
ship commissioners. 

Townships of the first class have been established in 
order to give the people in thickly settled districts addi- 
tional powers of local government. The township com- 
missioners may pave, light, and repair highways ; may 
pave and curb sidewalks ; may establish a system of 
sewers and drainage ; may maintain a night watch and 
police force ; may provide a lockup for prisoners ; may 
purchase fire engines ; may pass ordinances (page 98) 
regulating the affairs of the township ; and, to meet the 
expenses of the township, may levy an annual tax of not 
more than one per cent. 

The government of the townships of the second class resembles the 
township described in Lesson XVIL The officers of townships of 
this class are all elected by the people and are as follows: (i) three 

1 For School Directors, see page 232; for Election Officers, see Elections, 
page 225; for Overseers of the Poor, see Charity, page 230. For the juris- 
diction oi Justices of the Peace, see page 222. 

^ New terms fixed for other officers also are given on later pages. 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 195 

supervisors ; (2) an assessor for four years ; (3) a tax collector for four 
years; (4) two justices of the peace for six years; (5) three auditors 
for four years ; (6) a constable for four years ; (7) a treasurer. ^ 

The powers and duties of most of these officers have 
been stated (pages 90-91). The supervisors have the 
general care of the roads and bridges, and they may levy 
a road tax not exceeding the rate of one per cent. A 
supervisor receives not less than $1.50 nor more than $3 
for each day of actual service ; auditors and assessors 
receive $2 for each day of actual service ; the justices of 
the peace and constables are paid by fees (page 6^)', the 
tax collector receives a commission varying from two per 
cent to five per cent on the amount collected. 

QUESTIONS 

(i) State the duties (page 91) of the following township 
officers: the clerk; the assessor; the auditor; the justice 
of the peace; the constable. (2) Is your township of the 
first or of the second class } If it is of the second class, 
decide whether it would be profitable to change it to the 
first class. (3) Draw a road map of your township and 
locate its schoolhouses. (4) What improvements does 
your township need } Have the township officers the 
power to make these improvements .-^ (5) Can you see 
what is done with the money collected for township pur- 
poses } (6) Have you planted any shade trees around 
your schoolhouse .'* (7) Can you think of anything that 
you as pupils may do for the good of the township } 

1 In some townships a treasurer is not elected. In such cases the money 
collected as taxes is received and paid out by the supervisors. 



196 SUPPLEMENT 

II. THE BOROUGH 

Charter. — When the citizens of a town or village wish 
to be incorporated as a borough, they secure a charter 
from the county court of Quarter Sessions. The charter 
(page 95) gives the new borough a name, describes its 
boundaries, and bestows upon it the right, (i) of using 
a common seal, (2) of purchasing necessary lands and 
chattels, (3) of suing and being sued in the courts, (4) of 
electing borough officers, and (5) of exercising those powers 
that are necessary for the government of a thickly settled 
community. 

Officers. — The officers ^ of a borough that is not divided into wards 
areas follows: (i) the chief burgess, (2) seven members of the borough 
council, (3) three auditors, (4) one assessor, (5) one tax collector, 
(6) one constable, (7) one high constable, (8) two justices of the peace. 
The justices of the peace are elected for the term of six years ; all the 
others are elected for the term of four years. In addition to the elec- 
tive officers, the council appoints such officers as may be necessary to 
conduct the business of the borough. Among these are a secretary, 
a treasurer, a borough attorney to represent the borough in the courts, 
an engineer who attends to the grading of streets and sidewalks, a 
chief of police and patrolmen, a market master, — when there is a pub- 
lic market, — and a chief of the fire department. The council also 
appoints a board of health and sometimes a board of street com- 
missioners. 

Wards. — A borough may be divided into wards by 
petitioning to the court of Quarter Sessions and securing 
its consent to the division. Each ward is a separate elec- 
tion district, and elects not less than one or more than 
three members to the borough councils. Each ward also 

1 For borough School Director s^ see page 232; for Overseers of the Poor, 
see Charity, page 230. 



THE GOVERNMENT OP^ PENNSYLVANIA 1 97 

elects its own election officers, its own constable, and its 
own valuation assessor. The wards may be divided into 
precincts for election purposes. 

Chief Burgess. — The chief burgess executes the by- 
laws, rules, and regulations of the council, preserves order 
and maintains peace, settles disputes between the borough 
government and individuals, and acts as a justice of the 
peace in enforcing the ordinances of the borough. He 
signs ordinances passed by the council. He may veto an 
ordinance, but his veto may be overruled by a two-thirds 
vote of the council. The high constable informs the pub- 
lic of the approach of elections, and serves notices pre- 
scribed by law. 

Council. — The council is the Legislature of the borough. 
Its laws or ordinances relate to the peace, comfort, health, 
safety, convenience, and morality of the inhabitants. It 
cares for the streets, sidewalks, public parks, and markets ; 
it provides for a system of sewers and drains ; it prohibits 
the carrying on of any offensive or dangerous business ; 
it makes regulations concerning the health or cleanliness 
of the borough ; it provides for the extinguishment of 
fires ; it lights the streets and provides peace officers ; it 
levies a tax to meet the expenses of the borough, but the 
rate of the tax must not be higher than two per cent. It 
may borrow money on the credit of the borough. 

QUESTIONS 

(i) Is your borough divided into wards? If it is, draw 
a map of it showing the wards. (2) What is the present 
tax rate of your borough ? (3) What is the most expen- 



198 SUPPLEMENT 

sive part of borough government ? (4) Has your borough 
government any connection with the government of the 
township or townships that surround it ? (5) Can you 
name the present officers of your borough ? (The questions 
following Lesson XVIII ought to be answered here.) 

III. CITIES 

Classification. — In Pennsylvania, cities are divided into 
three classes. Those with a population of 1,000,000 or 
more belong to the first class, those with a population 
of more than 100,000 and less than 1,000,000 belong to 
the second class, and those with a population of less than 
100,000 belong to the third class. 

Cities of the Third Class. — When the majority of the 
voters of a borough or of two or more adjoining boroughs 
containing 10,000 or more inhabitants wish to change from 
borough government to city government, the Governor, 
through the Secretary of the commonwealth, will grant 
them a charter for a city of the third class. The larger 
a town becomes, the more numerous are its special needs, 
and the greater is the number of officers that are neces- 
sary to conduct its business. The city charter, therefore, 
gives larger powers and provides for more officers than 
the borough charter. 

The executive officer of a city of the third class is the 
Mayor. His powers and duties have, in a general way, 
been described in Lesson XIX. The mayor must be a 
citizen of Pennsylvania, and must be at least twenty-five 
years of age at the time of his election. He is elected 
for a term of four years. With the advice and consent 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 199 

of the select council, the mayor appoints the members of 
the police force, the fire marshal, and those officers whose 
positions are especially created by an ordinance of the city 
council. He supervises the management of affairs in all 
the departments, and sends an annual message to the 
council setting forth the condition of the city government 
and suggesting measures for its betterment. 

The City Controller, who is the financial officer of the 
city, is elected by the people for the term of four years. 
No money can be taken from the city treasury without 
the consent of this officer. The City Treasurer and the 
Board of Assessors, three in number, are also elected for a 
term of four years. The City Solicitor or law officer of 
the city is appointed by the council in joint convention. 
Deputy tax collectors are appointed by the city treasurer. 

The legislative body — called councils — consists of two 
branches, the Select Council and the Common Council. 
One member of the select council is elected from each 
ward for a term of four years, and two members of the 
common council are elected from each ward for a term 
of two years. 

Councils may fix the tax rate as high as two per cent, 
may impose a poll tax (page 6^^) of ^i, may license certain 
trades and occupations, and may borrow a sum of money 
not exceeding two per cent of the assessed value of the 
property of the city. The nature and extent of the powers 
of a city council have been indicated on page 99. 

Cities of the Second Class. — The cities of the second 
class at present are Pittsburgh and Scranton. They 
differ from the third-class cities chiefly in the fact that 



200 SUPPLEMENT 

their executive branch is more thoroughly organized and 
has a greater number of departments. 

At the head of the executive branch of cities of the 
second class is the Mayor who is elected for a term of 
four years. The power of this office is greater than that 
of the mayor in cities of the third class. In addition to 
executing the ordinances of council, he appoints, with the 
consent of the council, the following officers : — 

(i) The Director of the Department of Public Safety. 
This department controls affairs relating to police, public 
health, fires, inspection of boilers and of buildings. 

(2) The Director of Public Works. This department 
has charge of water works, gas works, electric light 
plants (when owned by the city), the grading, paving, 
repairing, cleaning and lighting of streets, construction 
of bridges and sewers. 

(3) The Collector of Delinquent Taxes (taxes that have 
not been paid when due). 

(4) The City Solicitor. 

(5) Five Members of the Sinking Fund Commission. 
These officers have the management of the city debt. 

(6) The City Treasurer. 

(y) The Director of the Departme7tt of Charities and Cor- 
rections. 

(8) The Director of the Department of Public Health. 

(9) Eight Police Magistrates. 

(10) The Director of the Depai'tment of Supplies. 

The mayor appoints the heads of the departments, and 
these in turn appoint all subordinate officers, clerks. 



THE GOVEl^MENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 20I 

and employees. The chief of a department may remove 
a subordinate for inefficiency, but not for partisan reasons. 
The city controller and the board of assessors are elected 
by the voters for a term of four years. 

The legislative power of cities of the second class is 
vested in a Council, — one body composed of five members 
and an additional member for each 75,000 inhabitants over 
200,000. 

IV. PHILADELPHIA 

The Charter of 1701. — The only city in Pennsylvania of the first 
class is Philadelphia. When Penn arrived at Philadelphia (in 1682) 
most of the people were living in caves in the banks. Twenty years 
later Philadelphia had grown to be a flourishing town, and in 1701 
Penn incorporated it as a city. The charter of 1701 provided for a 
mayor, a recorder, eight aldermen, and twelve common councilmen. 
The mayor was to be elected annually from the aldermen by the 
aldermen and the common council. All the officers except the mayor 
held their office for life, and when there was a vacancy, the officers, 
and not the people, filled it. The mayor, recorder (clerk), aldermen 
(police justice), and councilmen sat as a municipal council and acted 
as a single body, and in this body all municipal business, legislative, 
executive, and judicial, was centered. The mayor had little to do besides 
presiding at the meetings of the council and executing its orders ; he 
did not even have a vote. 

The boundaries of the original city extended from what is now Vine 
Street on the north to what is South Street on the south, and from 
the Delaware on the east to the Schuylkill on the west. City govern- 
ment under the first charter was a simple affair. Watchmen went 
through the city at night and rang a bell, crying out the time of the 
night and the state of the weather; overseers of the poor brought 
relief to the suffering ; a fire warden had charge of the fire apparatus 
which consisted of buckets, ladders, and a hand engine ; a public whip- 
per executed the sentence of the aldermen upon criminal offenders. 

Charter of 1789. — The charter of 1701 remained in force until 1789, 
when the Legislature granted a charter providing for a government in 



202 SUPPLEMENT 

which the people had a voice. Under this charter the aldermen and 
councilmen were elected by the people, and the mayor was elected 
by the aldermen. In 1796 the council was divided into two branches, 
the select council and the common council, its present form. The 
aldermen were relieved of their seats in the councils and were given 
only judicial duties to perform. As the city grew in size one department 
after another was established. In 1801 the board of water works pur- 
chased what is now Fairmount Park to protect the city water. In 
1806 a board of health was established, and about the same time the 
offices of the city treasurer, the city commissioners, and city solicitor 
were created. In 1839 the election of the mayor was placed in the 
hands of the people. Most of the appointments to office were made 
either by councils or by the various committees of councils. 

Charter 1854. — By the middle of the nineteenth century Philadelphia 
had outgrown the boundaries of her original charter. Adjoining the 
city proper were numerous densely populated boroughs and townships. 
"•In a walk or drive of two miles a citizen might come under three or 
four different sets of regulations. Thieves and rioters stepped over an 
imaginary line in the middle of a street and laughed defiance at the 
police." To remedy these evils the Legislature in 1854 gave the city 
a new charter enlarging her boundaries, so as to make them coincide 
with those of Philadelphia County — as they do at the present time. 
The officers of Philadelphia County, however, were not disturbed by 
the charter. Philadelphia City and Philadelphia County occupy the 
same territory, but each has a separate government. 

The charter of 1854 consolidated the old city of Philadelphia; the 
incorporated districts of Southwark, Northern Liberties, Kensington, 
Spring Garden, Moyamensing, Penn, Richmond, West Philadelphia, 
and Belmont; the boroughs of Germantown, Frankford, Manayunk, 
White Hall, Bridesburg, and Aramingo ; and the townships of Pas- 
syunk, Blockley, Kingsessing, Roxborough, Germantown, Bristol, Ox- 
ford, Lower Dublin, Moreland, Northern Liberties, Byberry, Delaware, 
and Penn. 

Under the charter of 1854 the mayor was given the veto power (page 
100), and was intrusted with the appointment of the police, but the 
councils appointed the heads of departments, and by means of com- 
mittees kept control of much of the executive business of the city. 
The treasui'er, the controller, the solicitor, and the receiver of taxes, 
and school directors were elected by the people. It will be noticed 



THE GOVERNMENT OF TENNSYLVANIA 203 

that under this charter the mayor was given but little power, and 
that most of the important officers of the city were elected directly by 
the people. 

In 1883 many prominent citizens petitioned the Legislature for a new 
charter. The city was at that time heavily in debt, its streets were 
unclean, its water supply bad, its sewers oflfensive, and its public build- 
ings poorly constructed. This state of things, it was said, was brought 
about by the fact that there was no system in the city government. There 
were some twenty-five separate departments, each managing its own 
affairs without reference to any other department. The result was waste 
and confusion. 

'' Frequently, when an ordinance had been passed providing for the 
paving of a street and the construction of a sewer and laying of water 
pipes, the street would be paved. It would then be opened to construct 
a sewer ; when this was done it would be repaved, and then be opened 
to put down the water pipe, and after this was done it would be paved 
again, and then it would be again opened and gas pipes laid, and then 
be paved a fourth time." ^ 

To bring relief the Legislature in 1887 gave the city a new charter — 
the one by which the city is governed at the present time. 

The present government of Philadelphia bears a strong 
resemblance to that provided for cities of the second 
class, although the power of the mayor is not quite so 
great as that of the mayor of a city of the second class. 
Its organization is as follows : — 

I. The Executive Department. — (i) The Mayor. This 
officer is elected for four years. Besides discharging the 
usual executive duties of a mayor (page 100) he apppints, 
with the consent of the select council, the director of the 
department of pubHc safety, the director of the department 
of public works, and the president and directors of chari- 
ties and corrections ; and he may remove these officers for 
sufficient cause. He has also the power to veto a particu- 

1 Allison and Penrose, Philadelphia, page 271. 



204 SUPPLEMENT 

lar item in an appropriation bill, and sign for all the other 
items of the bill. 

(2) The Department of Public Safety under a director. 
The principal subordinates of this large department are : 
the superintendent of police, the fire marshal, the chief of 
the health bureau, the chief of building inspectors, the 
chief of boiler inspectors, the chief of the electrical bureau, 
the chief engineer of the fire bureau, the chief of the bureau 
of markets. 

(3) The Department of Pttblic Works under a director. 
The principal subordinates are : the chief inspector of gas 
meters, the chief engineer of the water bureau, the chief 
of the bureau of surveys, the chief of the bureau of the 
highways, the chief of the bureau of street cleaning, the 
chief of the bureau of street lighting. 

(4) The Department of Charities and Corrections under 
five directors. 

(5) The Department of City Treasurer under a treasurer 
elected for a term of three years. 

(6) The Department of the Receiver of Taxes under the 
control of a receiver of taxes elected for a term of three 
years. 

(7) The Departjnent of City Controller under the head of 
the city controller who is elected for three years. He is 
the guardian of the finances of the city. Money cannot 
be paid out of the treasury without his order. 

(8) The Department of Law at the head of which is the 
city solicitor elected for three years. 

(9) The Department of the Sinking Fund Commission. 
This department (page 228) consists of three commission- 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 20 5 

ers : the mayor and controller, who are members by virtue 
of their offices, and one commissioner elected by councils. 

(10) The Board of Education (page 233). 

(11) The Department of Supplies. 

(12) The, Board of Recreatiofi. 

II. The Legislative Department is a council of two 
branches. The select branch consists of one member 
from each ward elected for four years ; the common 
branch consists of from one to seven members from each 
ward elected for two years. For powers see page 99. 

III. The Judicial Department consists of a court of 
Quarter Sessions and four courts of Common Pleas (page 
222). There are also police magistrates (page 222) — one 
for each 30,000 inhabitants — elected by the people for six 
years. The Superior Court (page 223) and the Supreme 
Court (page 224) hold sessions in Philadelphia. 

V. THE COUNTY 

Soon after his arrival in America, William Penn organized 
his "province" into counties. Chester, Bucks, and Phila- 
delphia counties were formed in 1682. Lancaster County 
was formed from a part of Chester County in 1729, and 
York from a part of Lancaster in 1749. As civilization 
moved westward and northward, new counties continued 
to be formed until 1878, when Lackawanna County was 
formed from Luzerne, making sixty-seven counties in all. 
The Legislature may authorize the formation of new 
counties but the Constitution declares : *' No new county 
shall be established which shall reduce any county to less 
than 400 square miles or to less than 20,000 inhabitants; 



206 SUPPLEMENT 

nor shall any county be formed of less area, or containing 
a less population." 

The county instituted by Penn was employed for all the 
important purposes of government, just as the Virginia 
county (page 83) was thus employed, but the Pennsylva- 
nia county differed from the Virginia county in the fact 
that in the former the people early had a voice in the 
choice of officers, while in the latter the officers were 
appointed by an outside authority, usually by the royal 
governor of the colony. It was through the county, there- 
fore, that the people of Pennsylvania became practiced in 
the art of self-government. 

The county officers ^ are : three commissioners,^ three auditors, two 
jury commissioners, a treasurer, a prothonotary,^ a recorder of deeds, 
a surveyor, a sheriff, a coroner, a register of wills, a clerk of the court 
of Common Pleas, a clerk of the court of Quarter Sessions, a clerk of the 
Orphans^ Court, and a district attorney. These are all elected by the 
voters for the term of four years. In the election of the commissioners 
and auditors each voter may vote for only two persons, and the three 
persons having the highest number of votes are declared to be elected. 

County officers usually receive their compensation in the form of fees. 
In counties containing over 150,000 inhabitants the officers receive a 
stated salary, but the salary of an officer who collects fees in the dis- 
charge of his duties must not exceed the amount of the fees collected. 
County commissioners receive a compensation graded according to 
population ; the larger the population the greater the salary. 

The Board of County Commissioners is the governing 
body of the county. They appoint a clerk to keep the 

1 For the Directors of the Poor^ see Charity, page 230; for County Super- 
intendent of Schools, see Superintendents, page 2^^; for County Judges, see 
The Five Kinds of Courts, page 223. 

2 In Philadelphia County these officers are calkd City Commissioners, 

3 In a number of counties the offices of prothonotary and recorder of deeds 
are filled by the same person. 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 20/ 

accounts of the board and to perform other clerical duties, 
a county solicitor to attend to the law business of the 
county. Their most important powers and duties are : to 
bring suits into the court in behalf of the county and to 
defend the county in the courts ; to furnish furniture, 
books, and stationery to the other county officers ; to fur- 
nish ballot boxes and blanks to election officials, and to 
provide election booths ; to construct and maintain nec- 
essary public buildings such as courts, jails, and poor- 
houses; to provide food and clothing for prisoners; to 
build bridges over wide streams and between cities and 
boroughs and townships ; to lay a tax to meet the ex- 
pense of county government. 

The county auditors inspect and settle the accounts of 
the treasurer, the directors of the poor, and of the county 
commissioners. In counties containing 150,000 inhabitants 
the duties of the auditors are performed by a county con- 
troller who is elected by the people for a term of four 
years, and who is the financial officer of the county. 
Where there is a controller, the office of auditor does not 
exist. 

The jury commissioners select the names of a number 
of persons to serve as jurors (page 134). These names 
are written upon slips of paper and placed in the jury 
wheel. When a jury is needed, the shps are intermixed by 
turning the wheel and the commissioners draw the num- 
ber of jurors desired. The pay of the jury commissioners 
is $2.50 a day for actual service, and of a juror $2 a 
day. 

The prothonotary is the clerk of the court of Common 



20S SUPPLEMENT 

Pleas — the court that tries civil cases (page 136). The 
register of wills, besides recording wills, grants letters of ad- 
ministration (page 85) and collects the collateral inheritance 
tax. The recorder of deeds makes a record of deeds and 
mortgages when transfers of real estate are made. The 
surveyor makes surveys of roads and bridges. The duties 
of the sheriff, the coroner, the treasurer, the clerk of the 
court, and the district attorney (State's attorney) have been 
described in Lesson XVI. 

QUESTIONS 

(1) What is the rate of your county tax ? (2) Make out 
a hst of the services performed by the county government. 
Compare this with a list of the services performed by your 
city or township or borough government. (3) Show that 
one county commissioner must always be elected from the 
pohtical party that is in the minority. (4) With what his- 
toric events has the name of your county been associated ? 
(At this point do the work suggested on page 88.) 

VI. CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA 

The Frame of the Government. — The people of Penn- 
sylvania have always been accustomed to a liberal and 
enlightened government. As soon as Penn received from 
the king the charter by which his title to the province of 
Pennsylvania was secured, he composed " The Frame of 
the Government," an instrument which we may regard 
as Pennsylvania's first constitution (page 108). In the 
preface to the " Frame " Penn expresses the following 
noble sentiment: — 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 209 

"Any government is free to the people under it (what- 
ever be the frame) where the laws rule and the people are 
a party to those laws, and more than this is tyranny, oli- 
garchy and confusion ; . . . Governments like clocks go 
from the motion men give them, and as governments are 
made and moved by men, so by them they are ruined too. 
Wherefore governments rather depend upon men than 
men upon governments. Let men be good and the gov- 
ernment cannot be bad : if it be ill, they will cure it. But 
if men be bad, let the government be never so good, they 
will endeavor to warp and spoil to their turn, 

" I know some say let us have good laws and no matter 
for the men that execute them : but let them consider that 
though good laws do well, good men do better ; for good 
laws may want good men and be abolished or invaded 
[violated] by ill men : but good men will never want good 
laws, nor suffer ill ones." 

The " Frame " provided for a governor of the province, 
a provincial council, and a general assembly. The gov- 
ernor was either the proprietor or his deputy. The pro- 
vincial council was elected by the freemen and was presided 
over by the Governor. The General Assembly at its first 
meeting consisted of all of the freemen of the province, 
but afterward it was hmited to 200 members elected by the 
people. The Council proposed the laws and submitted 
them to the General Assembly for its acceptance or rejec- 
tion. All the Assembly had to do was to vote "yes " or 
** no " on the questions that were submitted to it. 

Constitution of 1776. — Changes were made in the 
" Frame " from time to time, — changes which usually 



2IO , SUPPLEMENT 

increased the power of the people, — but the plan origi- 
nally laid out by Penn was substantially the plan by which 
the people of Pennsylvania continued to be governed until 
the time of the Revolution, when a convention, presided 
over by Benjamin Franklin, drew up a new constitution. 
Under this instrument more power was vested in the 
people. The old General Assembly was continued ; the 
name of the " Provincial Council " was changed to '' Su- 
preme Executive Council," the title " Governor " was 
changed to ''President." The President was chosen by 
the Assembly ; the Executive Council and the General 
Assembly were elected by the qualified voters of the 
State. The President was the Executive, the Executive 
Council was an advisory body, and the General Assembly, 
consisting of only one branch, was the law-making body. 
Taking it altogether the new government bore a strong 
resemblance to the old. 

Constitution of 1790. — In 1789 the people of the State 
called for a new constitution, and in the following year a 
convention of delegates drafted one. By the Constitution 
of 1790 the Legislature, or General Assembly, was made 
to consist of two branches — a Senate and a House of 
Representatives. The Executive was now to be elected 
by the voters — and all taxpayers could vote — and his 
title was changed from " President " to its old form, 
** Governor." The Constitution of 1790 was patterned 
after the Constitution of the United States. 

The Constitution of 1790 lasted, without change, until 
1838, when a new one was submitted to the people and 
adopted by them. 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 211 

Constitution of 1838. — By this Constitution the members 
of the Lower House of the General Assembly were to be 
elected annually. Their number was limited to one hun- 
dred, and they were to be apportioned to the counties 
according to the number of taxables in each county. The 
judges of the State were to be appointed as had been 
the custom from the beginning, but in 1850 an amendment 
(page in) was adopted providing for the election of the 
judges by the voters. 

The Present Constitution. — Amendments. — In this sketch 
of the constitutional growth of Pennsylvania we have seen 
that the power of the people in the management of public 
affairs has increased at every step. In 1874 the present 
constitution went into effect. This has continued in force 
for about thirty years, without change. When an amend- 
ment is desired, it may be proposed in either House of the 
General Assembly, and if a majority of both houses agree, 
it is published throughout the State, and if the majority of 
both branches of the next succeeding General Assembly 
again agree, the proposed amendment is submitted to the 
voters, and if it receives a majority of the votes, it becomes 
a part of the Constitution. Amendments cannot be sub- 
mitted to the voters oftener than once in five years. 



VII. THE RIGHTS AND PRIVILEGES OF THE 
PENNSYLVANIA CITIZEN 

The first Article of the Constitution of Pennsylvania 
declared the rights and privileges of a Pennsylvania 
citizen. It declares : — 



212 SUPPLEMENT 

That all men have the right of enjoying and defending life and 
liberty, of acquiring, possessing, and protecting property and reputa- 
tion, and of pursuing their own happiness : 

That since all power is in the people they may alter, abolish, and 
reform their government in such manner as they may think proper : 

That men have a right to worship God according to the dictates of 
their own conscience, and that no preference by law should be given 
to any religion, and that no person should be disqualified for office on 
account of his religious belief: 

That elections should be free and equal : 

That trial by jury is a right inviolate : 

That the printing press shall be free, and that every citizen may 
freely print, write, and speak on any subject, being responsible for the 
abuse of this privilege : 

That people shall be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and 
possessions against unreasonable searches and seizures, and that no 
warrant to search any place or seize any person shall issue without 
probable cause : 

That in all criminal prosecutions the accused has a right to be heard 
by himself and his counsel, to meet witnesses face to face, to compel 
w^itnesses w^ho are in his favor to come into court and testify, and to 
a speedy trial by an impartial jury : 

That no person can be compelled to give evidence against himself, 
nor be deprived of his life, liberty, or property unless by the law of the 
land : 

That no person for the same offense shall be twice put in jeopardy 
of life and limb : 

That all courts shall be open and that every man shall have justice 
without sale, denial, or delay : 

That suits may be brought against the commonwealth in such 
manner, in such courts, and in such cases as the Legislature may by 
law direct : 

That only the Legislature may suspend a law : 

That excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines be 
imposed, nor cruel punishment inflicted : 

That all prisoners shall be bailable by sufficient sureties, unless for 
capital offenses : 

That the writ of habeas corpus (page 42) shall not be suspended 
unless in time of rebellion or invasion : 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 213 

That there shall be no imprisonment for debt unless in cases of 
fraud : 

That no ex post facto law (page 158) and no law violating obliga- 
tions by contracts shall be passed : 

That no person shall be attainted of treason or felony by the 
Legislature : 

That citizens have a right to assemble in a peaceable manner and 
to apply to the rulers for a redress of grievances : 

That the citizens have a right to bear arms in defense of themselves 
and of the State : 

That in times of peace no standing army shall be kept up without 
the consent of the Legislature : 

That the military shall at all times be kept in strict subordination to 
a civil power : 

That no soldier in time of peace be quartered in any house without 
the consent of the owner : 

That the legislature shall not grant any title of nobility, nor create 
any office, the appointment to which shall be for a longer term than 
during good behavior : 

That emigration from the State shall not be prohibited. 

The above rights and privileges are guaranteed to every 
citizen in Pennsylvania, and the Government itself cannot 
violate them. If the Legislature should pass a law interfer- 
ing with them, the law would be declared unconstitutional 
by the courts ; if a governor or a judge or other high 
officer should ignore them, he would probably be impeached 
(page 1 30). If the Government in all its departments should 
make an attack upon these rights and privileges, the people 
would drive it from power, for the constitution is the law 
made by the people (page 1 10), and they, in the last resort, 
are its defenders and supporters. To make sure that the 
Legislature shall not infringe upon these rights under the 
guise of exercising the ''general power of government" 
the Constitution expressly forbids such infringement. 



214 SUPPLEMENT 

VIII. THE LEGISLATURE 

The Legislature of the commonwealth is called the 
General Assembly and consists of a Senate of 50 members ^ 
and of a House of Representatives of 207 members.^ Sena- 
tors are elected for a term of four years; representatives for 
a term of two years. Senators must be at least twenty-five 
years of age, and representatives twenty-one years of age. 
Both senators and representatives must have been citizens 
and inhabitants of Pennsylvania four years, and inhabitants 
of the district which they represent one year next before their 
election ; they must reside within their respective districts 
during their terms of service ; they cannot be appointed to 
any civil office under the commonwealth during the term for 
which they have been elected. No person convicted of in- 
famous crime can be elected to the General Assembly, and 
such a person can hold no office of profit or trust in the 
commonwealth. 

The compensation of senators and representatives as fixed by law is 
$1500 for a regular biennial session. In addition to this sum each mem- 
ber receives mileage to and from their homes at the rate of twenty-five 
cents a mile, and $ 50 for stationery, and $ 100 for postage. For a special 

^The apportionment (page ii6) of senators is accomplished as follows : 
The population of the State is divided by 50, and the quotient is called the 
Senatorial Ratio (about 125,000 at present). The State is divided into sena- 
torial districts, each district being compact and contiguous and containing as 
nearly as possible one ratio (or 125,000 inhabitants). Each senatorial district 
is entitled to one senator. Sometimes a senatorial district coincides with a 
county, sometimes it includes several counties. Philadelphia County includes 
eight senatorial districts and Allegheny County six. 

2 In the apportionment of representatives the population of the State is 
divided by 200, and on the basis of this ratio (at present about 32,000) repre- 
sentatives are allotted to the several counties. Each county is entitled to at 
least one representative, however small may be its population. 



J 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 21 5 

session each member receives $ 500 and mileage. The compensation of a 
member cannot be increased under a law passed during his term of service. 

The General Assembly meets every two years at Harris- 
burg,i and remains in session until its work is completed — 
usually for about five months. Its organization is such as 
has been described in Lesson XXII. Each house is the 
judge of the election and qualifications of its members. A 
majority of each house constitutes a quorum, but a smaller 
majority may meet and adjourn from day to day and com- 
pel the attendance of absent members. Each house 
determines its own rules of conducting business, punishes 
its members for disorderly behavior, enforces obedience to 
its orders, protects its members against violence and bribery. 
By a two-thirds vote either house may expel a member, 
but a member may not be expelled twice for the same 
cause. A member expelled for corruption cannot there- 
after be elected to either house. The sessions of both 
houses must be open to the public unless the business is 
such as ought to be kept secret. One house cannot with- 
out the consent of the other adjourn for a longer time than 
three days. Members are privileged from arrest during 
their attendance upon the Legislature except in cases of 
treason, felony, violation of the oath ^ of office, and disturb- 
ance of the peace, and for any speech or debate in either 
house they cannot be questioned at any other place. 

1 Philadelphia was the capital of the State until 1799, when Lancaster be- 
came the capital and remained such until 1 81 2, when Harrisburg was made the 
capital. The location of the capital cannot be changed without the consent 
of the voters of the State. 

^Senators and representatives and all judicial, State and county officers, be- 
fore entering upon the duties of their respective offices take the following oath : 



2l6 SUPPLEMENT 

The passage of bills has been described in Lesson XXIIL All 
bills must be referred to committees, and all bills for raising revenue 
must originate in the House of Representatives, although the Senate 
may propose amendments to such bills. All bills must be signed by 
the Governor, who has the veto power (page 121). A veto of the 
Governor may be overruled by a two-thirds vote of both houses. 

The extent of the power of the General Assembly and 
the kinds of laws it makes have been stated (pages 122- 
123). The Constitution places a number of restrictions 
upon the power of the Assembly, and among these restric- 
tions the most important are as follows : — 

(i) It must not pass local or special IdiV^'s, (a) regulating the affairs 
of the counties, cities, townships, wards, boroughs, or school districts ; 
{b) changing the names of persons or places ; (<r) authorizing the lay- 
ing out, opening, altering or maintaining roads, highways, or streets ; 
(d) relating to ferries, bridges, cemeteries, locating or changing county 
seats ; (e) incorporating cities, towns, or villages, or changing their 
charters ; (/") for opening and conducting elections ; (g) granting 
divorces ; (Ji) changing the law of descent or succession ; (/) regulat- 
ing the management of the public schools ; (7) fixing the rate of inter- 
est ; {k) exempting property from taxation ; (/) regulating labor, trade, 
mining, or manufacturing ; (;;?) creating corporations. (The Assembly 
may pass laws in reference to the above subjects, but such laws must 
treat all localities and all classes of persons alike.) 

(2) It shall not pass a bill giving extra compensation to any public 

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support, obey, and defend the 
Constitution of the United States, and the constitution of this commonwealth, 
and that I will discharge the duties of my office with fidelity ; that I have not 
paid or contributed, or promised to pay or contribute, either directly or in- 
directly, any money or other valuable thing, to procure my nomination or 
election (or appointment), except for necessary and proper expenses expressly 
authorized by law; that I have not knowingly violated any election law of this 
commonwealth, or procured it to be done by others in my behalf ; that I will 
not knowingly receive, directly or indirectly, any money or other valuable 
things for the performance or non-performance of an act or duty pertaining 
to my office, other than the compensation allowed by law. 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 21/ 

ofificer, servant, employee, or agent after services have been rendered 
and contract made. 

(3) When the General Assembly is convened in special or extra ses- 
sion (page 127), there shall be no legislation upon subjects other than 
those designated in the jDroclamation of the Governor calling such 
session. 

IX. THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 

The executive department of Pennsylvania consists of a 
governor, a lieutenant governor, a secretary of the com- 
monwealth, an attorney-general, an auditor general, a state 
treasurer, a secretary of internal affairs, and a superintend- 
ent of public instruction. The powers and duties of most 
of these officers have been described in Lesson XXIV. 

The Governor. — The Governor is elected by the voters 
of the State and holds his office for four years. At the 
expiration of a term he cannot be reelected to the office 
for the next succeeding term. He must be a citizen of 
the United States, must be at least thirty years of age, 
and must have been for seven years next preceding his 
election an inhabitant of the State. His duties and powers 
are almost precisely those mentioned on pages 126-128. 
By and with the advice and consent of two thirds of the 
Senate he appoints the Secretary of the commonwealth, 
the Attorney-General, and the Superintendent of PubHc 
Instruction. The first two of these officers hold office 
during the Governor's pleasure, the last one is appointed 
for four years. He is also authorized by law to appoint 
many other officers, and to fill vacancies that may happen 
in offices in the executive and judicial departments. Upon 
the recommendation of the Board of Pardo7is, which con- 



21 8 SUPPLEMENT 

sists of the lieutenant governor, the secretary of the com- 
monwealth, attorney-general, and the secretary of internal 
affairs, he may remit fines and forfeitures and grant re- 
prieves, commutations of sentences and pardons (page 
127). In cases of impeachment he does not have the 
pardoning power. He may secure from the officers of the 
executive department information upon any subject relating 
to the duties of their offices. He sends a message to the 
General Assembly and may convene that body in extra 
session. He has the veto power, and may veto particular 
items in an appropriation bill and approve other items. 

The Lieutenant Governor. — The Lieutenant Governor 
(page 128) is elected for the same length of time as the 
governor and must have the same qualifications. He 
presides over the Senate and is a member of the Board of 
Pardons. 

The Secretary of the Commonwealth. — The Secretary 
of the commonwealth (page 129) is appointed by the Gov- 
ernor for a term of four years, removable at pleasure. He 
is the custodian of the State seal and of the laws passed 
by the General Assembly. He has in his keeping also 
the returns of national, state, and county elections, bonds 
of officers commissioned by the Governor and the records 
of appointments, corporations chartered for profit, death 
warrants, respites, and pardons. He is a member of the 
Board of Pardons. He also transacts the official business 
that Pennsylvania may have with governments of other 
States, or with the Government of the United States. 

The Attorney-General. — The Attorney-General (page 
130) is appointed by the Governor for the term of four 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 219 

years. He is the legal adviser of the Governor and of the 
heads of the various State departments and boards. Upon 
request he must furnish written opinions upon questions 
arising in the management of the State affairs. He also 
collects by suit in court, or otherwise, claims due the com- 
monwealth. He is a member of the Board of Pardons. 

The Auditor General. — The Auditor General is elected 
for the term of four years. He examines annually the 
condition of the State treasury, and settles the accounts 
between the State and all persons and corporations. 
Taxes due the State are paid into his ofifice. He pays 
the salaries of all judicial officers of the State and of cer- 
tain other public officers, and also disburses quarterly the 
appropriations made by the Legislature to penal, chari- 
table, and educational institutions. 

The State Treasurer. — The State Treasurer (page 129) 
is elected for the term of four years. He receives and 
receipts for all moneys paid into the State treasury, keeps 
the auditor general informed of the condition of the treas- 
ury, and makes a detailed report to the Legislature of all 
the receipts and expenditures of the State. He and the 
auditor general, acting together, may examine the accounts 
of any city officer. He gives a bond of ^500,000 for the 
honest performance of his duties. 

The Secretary of Internal Affairs. — The Secretary of 
Internal Affairs is elected for a term of four years. He 
keeps the records of titles of lands owned by the State, 
and of the deeds given to those who in the past have 
purchased land from the proprietary government or from 
the commonwealth. He publishes valuable facts con- 



220 SUPPLEMENT 

nected with the subject of taxation, industry, railways, 
and mines. It is also his duty to inquire whether the 
affairs of railroads, banks, mines, and factories are con- 
ducted according to law, and if complaint against the 
management of these is made, it is his duty to assist in 
remedying the evils complained of. The Secretary of 
internal affairs is a member of the Board of Pardons. 

The Superintendent of Public Instruction. — The Super- 
intendent of Public Instruction (page 130) is appointed by 
the Governor for a term of four years. He commissions 
county, city, borough, and township superintendents of 
common schools, and appoints the State Trustees of State 
Normal Schools. He conducts the examinations of stu- 
dents graduating from normal schools. He signs orders 
on the State treasury for the payment of money out of 
the State appropriation to the several school districts of 
the State. He has a general supervision of all public 
schools in the Commonwealth. ^ 

The officers whose duties have been described above constitute the 
the executive department as determined by the Constitution. Besides 
these there are many executive officers (appointed with the consent of 
the Senate by the Governor for terms varying from three to five years) 
whose positions have been created from time to time by acts of the 
Legislature. Among these may be mentioned : the Adjutant Gejteral 
who is the Governor's military assistant ; the Insiirance Commissioner 
who sees that the life and fire insurance companies transact business 
honestly ; the State Librarian who has charge of the State's library at 
Harrisburg ; the Comjnissioner of Banking who sees that the laws in 
reference to banks are faithfully executed; the Secretary of Agriculture 
who promotes in every way he can the interests of farmers ; the Factory 
Inspector whose duty is to see that factories are managed in a way that 

1 For other duties of this ofHce see page 23^. 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 



221 



is not injurious to employees ; the Superintendent of Public Printing 
and Binding who supervises the printing of the reports of the several 
departments ; the State Highway Commissiojier who cooperates with 
the local governments in the improvement of roads ; a Chief of the De- 
partment of mines who sees that the mining laws are executed; three 
Railroad Commissioners who supervise the railroads. 

Besides these there are numerous State Boards and Cojnmissions 
appointed by the Governor to look after certain interests. There is the 
Board of 'Agriculture, the State Forestry Commission, the Board of 
Public Grounds and Buildings, the Commission of Soldiers'" Orpha^i 
Schools, the Sinking Fiend Co7nmission, the Board of Public Charities, 
the Board of Health, the Pharmaceutical Examijiing Board (for exam- 
ining those desiring to conduct the drug business), the Board of Dental 
Examiners, the Live Stock Sanitary Board (whose duty is to protect 
the health of domestic animals), the Board of Veterinary Medical 
Exajniners, the Board of Medical Exaininers, the Board of Fish 
Commissioners, the Board of Game Com7nissioners. 

Besides the officials that have been mentioned above there are in the 
service of the State such assistants, deputies, secretaries, clerks, and 
employees of various kinds as may be necessary for the efficient working 
of the several departments. These subordinates are usually appointed 
by the heads of the departments. 

The salaries of the principal State officials are as follows : — 



Governor 






$ 10,000 


Lieutenant Governor . 






5,000 


Secretary of the Commonwealth . 






8,000 


Attorney-General 






12,000 


Auditor General 






8,000 


State Treasurer .... 






8,000 


Secretary of Internal Affairs 






8,000 


Superintendent of Public Instruction 






5,000 


Adjutant General 






4,000 


Insurance Commissioner 






7,500 


Commissioner of Banking . 






6,000 


Secretary of Agriculture 






3.5CO 


Chief Justice of the Supreme Court 






13,500 


Judges of the Supreme Court, each 






13,000 


Judges of the Superior Court, each 






12,000 



222 SUPPLEMENT 

X. THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM 

The Justice of the Peace. — A description of the judicial 
system of Pennsylvania may begin with the Justice of the 
Peace.^ Civil cases, when the amount of money involved 
is less than ^loo, must first be brought before a justice of 
the peace whose decision is final in respect to amounts less 
than ;^5.33. Civil suits involving more than $ioo and less 
than ^300 may be tried either before a justice of the peace 
or before the court of Common Pleas. All civil suits 
tried before a justice may be taken upon appeal (page 136) 
to the court of Common Pleas, provided the amount in 
respect to which judgment is rendered by the justice 
exceeds ^5.33. 

Criminal cases of a trivial nature, such as disorderly 
conduct or fast driving, may be decided by a justice of the 
peace, without the right of appeal. In serious criminal 
cases the justice hears only the evidence against the 
accused, and if this seems to be such as would probably 
lead to conviction, the accused is either sent to the county 
jail to await trial before the court of Quarter Sessions or 
is released upon bail (page 133). In very serious offenses, 

'^uch as murder or burglary, bail is not allowable. 

^/^ Judicial Districts. — For judicial purposes the State is 
divided into fifty-six judicial districts. Forty -seven of these 
districts include one county each, seven districts include 

1 In cities of the second and third class, justices or the peace are called 
aldermen. One alderman is ekcted for each ward. In Philadelphia the 
justice of the peace is called magistrate. The term of office, manner of elec- 
tion, and the powers and duties of aldermen and magistrates are practically 
the same as those of the justice of the peace. 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 223 

two counties each, and two districts include three counties 
each. Thirty-nine of these judicial districts have one judge 
each, twelve have two judges each, two (Schuylkill and 
Lackawanna) have three judges each, one (Luzerne) has 
four judges, one (Allegheny) has twelve judges, and one 
(Philadelphia) has fifteen judges. These judges are all 
learned in the law, and are elected by the voters of the 
judicial district for a term of ten years. In districts 
including more than one county, two associate judges 
not learned in the law are elected for a term of five 
years. The associate judges act as advisers to the regular 
judges. 

The Five Kinds of Courts. — In every county five differ- 
ent kinds of courts are held. These are: (i) the court 
of Common Pleas, which tries civil cases ; (2) the court 
of Oyer and Terminer, which tries high crimes, such as 
murder, forgery, arson ; (3) the court of Quarter Sessions, 
which tries the lower grade of crimes, such as theft or 
assault and battery ; (4) the Equity Court which pro- 
nounces justice in those cases for which the law has not 
provided a formal remedy; (5) the Orphans' Court, which 
settles the estates of deceased persons. In the judicial 
districts that have but one judge, all these courts are held 
by the same judge ; that is to say, one judge tries every 
kind of case that is brought into the court. In districts 
that have several judges, there may be elected one or 
more special judges of the Orphans' Court. 

The Superior Court — Above the courts that are held in 
the county are the Superior Court and the Supreme Court. 
The Superior Court is composed of seven judges elected 



224 



SUPPLEMENT 



by the voters for a term of ten years. It holds sessions 
at Philadelphia in the months of October, November, and 
December ; at Scranton, in January ; at Williamsport, in 
February ; at Harrisburg, in March ; at Pittsburgh, in April 
and May. 

The Supreme Court. — The Supreme Court consists of 
seven judges (called justices) elected for a term of twenty- 
one years. The justice who has been longest on the 
bench is the Chief Justice. The Supreme Court holds its 
sessions as follows : at Philadelphia (eastern district) 
from January till May ; at Harrisburg (middle district) 
in June ; at Pittsburgh (western district) in October. The 
Superior Court and the Supreme Court each has a pro- 
thonotary and a recorder in each of the places in which 
sessions are held. 

In the court of Common Pleas cases involving less than 
;^i500 are taken upon appeal to the Superior Court; those 
involving a greater amount are taken upon appeal to 
the Supreme Court. Appeals taken from the court of 
Quarter Sessions and also from the court of Oyer and 
Terminer are heard in the Superior Court. Murder cases, 
however, are carried upon appeal direct to the Supreme 
Court. Appeals may be taken from the Superior Court 
to the Supreme Court if the meaning of the Constitution 
of the State of Pennsylvania or of the Constitution of 
the United States is in question, or if the jurisdiction of 
the Superior Court is in question, or if the Supreme Court 
especially allows an appeal. In other cases the decision 
of the Superior Court is final. 

Elections. — Elections are held on the Tuesday next 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 225 

following the first Monday of November. In odd-numbered 
years (municipal election) the people elect judges, and 
county, township, ward, borough, city, and school-district 
officers ; in even-numbered years (general election) the 
people elect judges, members of the General Assembly, 
state officers, and national officers. Townships and bor- 
oughs and cities are divided into election districts, or pre- 
cincts, in such a manner as the court of Quarter Sessions 
directs. Each precinct has election officers, a judge, and 
two inspectors, all of whom are elected by vote. In voting 
for inspectors, in order that the political party in the 
minority may have an election official, each voter votes for 
but one person. Each inspector appoints a clerk. Voters 
must be registered (page 48) by a registration assessor. A 
man whose name is not on the registration list cannot vote 
unless he can prove by the oath of a quaUfied voter and by 
his own oath that he has a right to vote. 

Elections are conducted practically in the manner described in Les- 
son X. Nominations for office are made by conventions of the various 
political parties. Each party is allowed to have in the election room 
a representative to defend its interests and to see that the election is 
conducted fairly. Bribery is punishable by fine and imprisonment. 

Every male citizen twenty-one years of age, who has been 
a citizen of the United States for at least one month, who 
has resided in Pennsylvania one year {six months, if pre- 
viously a resident of Pennsylvania) immediately before the 
election, who has resided in the election district where he 
offers to vote at least two months, and who has paid within 
two years a State, county, or occupation tax, has a right to 
vote at all elections. The payment of the tax is not required 



226 SUPPLEMENT 

of men under the age of twenty-two. These are said to 
*' vote on age." 

There are a number of offices inco7ftpatible with each other ; that is, 
one person cannot be elected or appointed to both of them : (i) No 
person can be a justice of the peace and at the same time a prothono- 
tary, a clerk of a court, or an associate judge ; (2) a district attorney 
may hold no other office under the laws and constitution of the State; 
(3) a county commissioner may not be a school director ; (4) a member 
of the Legislature may not be a councilman in any city ; (5) a council- 
man may not hold any city or county office ; (6) a township or borough 
auditor may not be a school director, a constable, or a commissioner 
of roads. A person who has been convicted of dueling is deprived of 
the privilege of holding any office of profit or trust in the State. 



XL TAXATION AND PUBLIC DEBT 

The following property is exempt from taxation (page 64): 
churches, meeting houses, and other places of worship ; 
hospitals, universities, colleges, seminaries, academies when 
these are founded and endowed and maintained by private 
or public charity; schoolhouses, court houses, jails, and 
almshouses. All other property must be taxed in a uniform 
manner, and within the limits of the civil division in which 
it is collected, at a. uniform rate. 

Local Taxation. — The main source of revenue ^ for all 
the local governments is a tax laid on all real and personal 
property (page 61). The township levies a tax, not exceed- 
ing one per cent for roads, and bears its share of the county 
taxes, the county rate being added to its own rate. In 
those counties that have no county almshouses the town- 
ships also collect a poor tax. The borough government 

^ For School Taxes, see School Revenues, page 234. 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 22/ 

levies the borough rate, and to this adds the county rate. 
The county commissioners make out the county rate, and 
call upon the township and borough governments for their 
respective share of the county taxes. They also levy 
a dog tax not exceeding $4. When a property holder 
in a borough or township thinks his property has not 
been assessed (page 62) properly, he may appeal to the 
county commissioners who will make a reassessment if it 
seems to them to be just to do so. If the decision of the 
commissioners is not satisfactory, complaint ma)^ be taken 
to the court of Common Pleas. Cities, in addition to the 
general property tax, may levy a poll tax and collect the 
dog tax and many kinds of licenses. 

State Taxation. — The State government of Pennsyl- 
vania collects no tax on real estate and three fourths of the 
tax that it levies through the county government on per- 
sonal property is returned to the counties. 

It has, however, a great many sources of revenue. 
Chief among these are the tax on the capital stock of 
corporations (page 228), the tax on the gross receipts of 
corporations, the tax on bank stock, the tax on collateral 
inheritance ^ and licenses and fees of many kinds. 

Public Debt. — The Constitution restricts the power of 
both the State and local governments to borrow money. 
When the expenses of the government exceed the amount 
appropriated and a deficiency is thus caused, this deficiency 
may be suppHed by borrowing money, but the debt created 

1 An inheritance that is received by a relative who is not a direct descend- 
ant of the person from whom the inheritance falls is called a collateral in- 
heritance. 



228 SUPPLEMENT 

to supply deficiences must never exceed at any one time 
$ 1,000,000. For the defense of the State, and to sup- 
press insurrection and repel invasion, the power to bor- 
row money is unUmited, on the principle that the pubUc 
safety is higher than any other consideration. The debt 
of a county, city, borough, township or school district must 
not exceed seven per cent of the assessed value of the 
taxable property therein ; and if one of these local govern- 
ments wishes to borrow an amount exceeding two per cent of 
the value of the assessable property, the consent of the 
voters must first be obtained at a public election. When 
a local government incurs a debt, it must provide at the 
same time for the collection of an annual tax sufficient to 
pay the interest and also the principal within thirty years. 
The payment of the State debt is provided for by a Sink- 
ing Fund, into which every year certain revenues are 
paid for the express purpose of extinguishing the debt. 
Unless in cases of war, invasion, or insurrection, no part of 
the sinking fund can be used. The State debt is now 
very small. For the payment of the debts of cities sink- 
ing funds have also been established. 

XII. CORPORATIONS 

A Corporation is a group of individuals authorized by law to act in 
respect to certain specified matters as one individual ; or it is a group 
of natural persons authorized to act as one artificial person. This arti- 
ficial person known as a corporation lives forever, unless the power 
(the law) that created it chooses to destroy it or limit its existence ; it 
has a name, and under this name it can sue in the courts, and be sued 
like a natural person ; with certain restrictions it can acquire property 
and borrow money like an ordinary person ; it can make such by-laws 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 229 

(page 78) as may be necessary to regulate its internal affairs and these 
by-laws have all the force of law. Corporations are either private or 
public. A private corporation is one organized for the private profit 
or pleasure of the individuals who secure the incorporation. Railroad 
companies, banks, and colleges are examples of private corporations. 
Public corporations are organized for political purposes, for the promo- 
tion of the public welfare. A borough or a city is a pubhc corporation. 
The written instrument that specifies the rights and privileges of a cor- 
poration is a charter. 

The Constitution of Pennsylvania carefully regulates the 
power of the private corporations. It provides that a cor- 
poration must not engage in any business other than that 
expressly authorized in the charter, and that it shall hold 
only such an amount of real estate as may be necessary to 
conduct its business properly. All fictitious increase of 
the stock or indebtedness of a corporation is forbidden. 
Sometimes corporations like railroads or canals are empow- 
ered for pubHc use (page 69) of private property. When 
they exercise this power they must, in all cases, make just 
compensation to the owners of the property used or injured. 
Whenever, in the opinion of the Legislature, a corpora- 
tion becomes injurious to the citizens of the common- 
wealth, its charter may be revoked, but injustice must not 
be done to the corporators. 

The Constitution contains a number of restrictions upon telegraph 
and railroad corporations. A telegraph company may not consolidate 
with or hold a controlling interest in the stock or bonds of a competing 
telegraph line. Any railroad company has the right with its road to 
intersect, connect with or cross any other railroad, and railroads shall 
receive and transport each other's passengers, freights, and cars without 
delay or discrimination. In their charges railroads must not discrimi- 
nate against either persons or places. Parallel or competing railroad 
lines must not consolidate. A railroad may not engage in the mining 



230 ' SUPPLEMENT 

or manufacturing business, but a factory or mine may carry its own 
products on its own railroad providing this does not exceed fifty miles 
in length. Free passes on railroads or passes at a discount must not 
be given except to officers or employees of the company issuing them. 
No street passenger railway can be constructed within the limits of any 
city, borough, or township without the consent of its local authorities. 

XIII. CHARITY 

Local Charities. — In almost every county there is a 
county almshouse where the poor and unfortunate are cared 
for. The almshouse is under the control of three Directors 
of the Poor, county officers elected by the people for a term 
of four years. Inmates to almshouses are admitted by 
the direction of the justices of the peace. In a few coun- 
ties there is no county almshouse, and when this is the 
case, relief for the poor must be given by the township and 
borough authorities. In boroughs and townships that are 
compelled to care for their own poor there are elected for 
a term of two years two Overseers of the Poor, whose 
duties are to extend aid to the suffering and to levy a tax 
to meet the expenses. Sometimes help is given directly to 
paupers in their homes. 

State Charities. — In addition to the assistance given to 
the unfortunate by local authority, the State government 
makes large contributions for all kinds of charitable pur- 
poses. Under the Constitution no appropriation can be 
made to a charitable institution that is not under the con- 
trol of the State except by a two-thirds vote of all the 
members elected to each house of the General Assem- 
bly. No appropriations whatever, for charitable purposes, 
may be made to any religious denomination. The Gen- 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 23 1 

eral Assembly may, nevertheless, extend aid to institu- 
tions wherein the widows and orphans of soldiers are 
maintained, but the money thus appropriated must be 
applied exclusively to the support of such widows and 
orphans. 

The State supports in whole or in part such charitable 
enterprises as hospitals for the insane, schools for the^deaf 
and blind and feeble minded, soldiers' and sailors' homes, 
orphanages, reformatory schools, and hospitals for injured 
persons. Those institutions that receive aid from the State 
are under the general supervision of the Board of Public 
Charities composed of ten members appointed by the Gov- 
ernor. This board has power to examine into the condi- 
tions of all charitable institutions and report to the General 
Assembly. The State government appropriates more than 
$ 2,000,000 to charitable purposes. 



XIV. EDUCATION 

Constitutional Provisions. — It is provided in the Con- 
stitution of Pennsylvania that the General Assembly shall 
estabHsh a system of public schools for the education of 
all children in the commonwealth above the age of six, 
and that it shall appropriate at least one million of dollars 
each year for the support of the public schools ; but no 
part of this money can be used for the support of any 
sectarian school. The Constitution also provides that 
women twenty-one years of age and upwards shall be 
eligible to any office of control or management under the 
school" law of the State. 



232. 



SUPPLEMENT 



School Districts and School Directors. — The unit of 
school government in Pennsylvania is the district^ which 
may be a city, an incorporated town, a borough, or a town- 
ship. There are four classes of districts. Districts having 
a population of 500,000 or more belong to the first class ; 
those having a population of less than 500,000 and more 
than 30,000 belong to the second class; those having a 
population of less than 30,000 and more than 5006 belong 
to the third class ; those having a population of less than 
5000 belong to the fourth class. 

The affairs of each school district are administered by a 
Board of School Directors, who hold office for a term of six 
years.^ In school districts of the first class — that is, in 
Philadelphia and in Pittsburgh — the Board of Directors con- 
sists of fifteen members, appointed by the judges of the 
courts of common pleas. In districts of the second class 
the Board of Directors consists of nine members, elected at 
large by the voters of the district. In school districts of 
the third class the Board consists of seven members, elected 
at large ; and in school districts of the fourth class it 
consists of five members, elected at large. 

Independent School Districts. — A majority of the taxable inhabitants 
of any contiguous territory in any school district (or school districts) 
may petition to the court of common pleas, asking that an independent 
school district be established ; and if the court deems it wise to do so, 
it will make a decree establishing an independent school district, and 
will fix boundaries for the new district. An independent school district 
thus created belongs to the class to which it is entitled by its popula- 
tion. Thus we see that the boundaries of school districts do not 

1 In districts of the first class, the board is known as the Board of Public 
Education. 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 233 

always coincide exactly with the boundaries of other civil divisions. 
Usually, however, they do thus coincide. 

Powers and Duties of School Directors. — The general 
powers and duties of a Board of School Directors are as 
follows: to establish a sufficient number of elementary 
public schools; to educate every person residing in the 
district between the ages of six and twenty-one ; to employ 
teachers ; to fix the length of the school term ; to adopt 
text-books ; to appoint a superintendent ; to levy and assess 
school taxes ; to borrow money for school purposes ; to 
purchase or sell land ; to adopt courses of study ; to fix 
the salaries of teachers and other appointees of the Board; 
to provide for fuel and for school supplies. In addition to 
maintaining the elementary schools the Board may, under 
certain conditions, establish high schools, manual training 
schools, vocational schools, domestic science schools, agri- 
cultural schools, evening schools, kindergartens, schools 
for the blind, deaf, and mentally deficient, truant schools, 
parental schools, and schools for adults. 

School Revenues. — In school districts of the first class 
the Board of Education levies for the support of the public 
schools an annual tax of not less than five nor more than 
six mills on the dollar of the total assessment of all prop- 
erty. In school districts of the second, third, and fourth 
class the Board of School Directors levies on all taxable 
property a tax which in districts of the second class must 
not exceed twenty mills on the dollar and in districts of the 
third and fourth class must not exceed twenty-five mills on 
the dollar. In districts of the second, third, and fourth 
class in addition to the property tax there is collected 



234 



SUPPLEMENT 



every year an occupation tax of at least one dollar. This 
occupation tax is levied upon every male inhabitant of the 
district over twenty-one years of age. 

Besides the money raised by local taxation each district 
receives its share of an annual State appropriation. One 
half of the State appropriation — about $7,500,000 — is 
distributed to the districts on the basis of the number of 
paid teachers regularly employed by a district, and the 
other half is distributed on the basis of the number of 
children between the ages of six and sixteen residing in the 
respective school districts in the several counties of the 
State. 

State Board of Education. — This body consists of six 
members appointed by the Governor for a term of six 
years. Three of the members must be successful edu- 
cators of high standing connected with the pubHc school 
system of the State. The Board is authorized to report and 
recommend to the Governor and to the General Assembly 
legislation needed to make the public schools more efficient 
and useful. It equalizes, when possible, the educational 
advantages of the different parts of the State ; it inspects 
and requires reports from schools wholly or partly sup- 
ported by the State but not supervised by the public school 
authorities ; it encourages and promotes agricultural edu- 
cation, manual training, and domestic science ; it prescribes 
rules and regulations for the sanitary equipment and in- 
spection of school buildings, and takes such action as it 
may deem necessary to promote the physical and moral 
welfare of the children of the pubUc schools of the 
Commonwealth. The State Superintendent of Public In- 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 235 

struction is ex-officio a member of the State Board of 
Education and is its president. 

Superintendents. — The school directors of the several 
districts in each county meet in convention at the county- 
seat and select a county siiperintendent. No person can 
be elected to this office unless he has had successful ex- 
perience as a teacher within three years or successful 
experience as a superintendent of schools. The salary of 
the county superintendent depends upon the number of 
schools under his supervision, but it must not be less than 
1^1500 a year, nor more then ^2000 a year, unless the 
convention which elects a superintendent specifically votes 
him a larger salary. His duties have been described on 
page 87. The school directors of every school district of 
the first and second class must, and in every district of 
the third class may, elect a district superintendent, and 
when this is done, the schools having a district superin- 
tendent are no longer under the supervision of the county 
superintendent. 

The State Superintendent. — The State Superintendent 
(page 220) decides controversies or disputes that may arise 
among directors ; gives advice, explanation, and informa- 
tion to school officers and citizens relative to school law 
and to the rights and duties of parents and pupils ; pre- 
pares blanks for the making of school reports ; and prepares 
an annual report giving a full account of the condition of 
the pubhc schools. 

Teachers' Certificates. — County and district superin- 
tendents hold examinations for teachers and issue certifi- 
cates of two grades: (i) a provisional certificate, which 



236 SUPPLEMENT 

licenses the holder to teach for one year only, and which 
cannot be renewed without a reexamination ; and (2) a 
professional certificate, which licenses the holder to teach 
for a longer period of time, and which may be renewed 
without examination. The superintendent of public in- 
struction will grant after an examination (3) a permanent 
certificate, which licenses the holder to teach during good 
behavior. Graduates of the normal schools, of which there 
are thirteen in the State, are authorized to teach in any 
part of the State without further examination. 

Qualifications of Teachers. — No teacher may receive 
from a county or district superintendent a certificate as a 
teacher who has not a fair knowledge of orthography, 
reading, writing, geography, physiology and hygiene, 
English grammar, arithmetic, history of the United States, 
the theory of teaching,^civil government, including State and 
local, and elementary algebra ; nor shall such certificate be 
given to any person who is in the habit of using, as a bever- 
age, any intoxicating drinks, or who habitually takes opium. 

Teachers* Institutes. — The county superintendent must 
hold an annual teachers' institute which shall continue in 
session at least five days, and which the teachers of the 
county are required to attend. School boards are required 
to pay the teachers, in addition to their regular compensa- 
tion, ^3 for each day's attendance at the sessions of the 
institute. A city or borough which has a superintendent, 
and which employs not less than forty teachers, may have 
a separate institute. 

Compulsory Attendance. — Every guardian or parent, who 
has control of children between the ages of eight and six- 



THE GOVERNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 23/ 

teen years, is required to send such children to a school 
where the common English branches are taught, and such 
children must attend a school during at least seventy per 
cent of the time in which the school shall be in session, un- 
less it can be shown that mental, physical, or urgent reasons 
prevent attendance. This rule, however, does not apply 
to children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen who 
can read and write the English language and who are 
regularly engaged in some useful employment. Parents 
are liable to a fine if convicted of not sending their children 
to school. Attendance officers may be appointed to com- 
pel the children to go to school. 

Where a pupil resides one and a half miles or more from 
the nearest public school, he is entitled either to free trans- 
portation to a suitable school in the district or to the privi- 
lege of attending in another district a school which is more 
convenient of access. 



XV. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN PENNSYLVANIA 

By the apportionment under the census of 1900 Penn- 
sylvania is entitled to thirty-two representatives in the 
National Congress. 

Of the cases that must be tried in the Federal Courts, 
those belonging to the District Court (page 175) are tried 
by the district judges in Philadelphia, Harrisburg, Pitts^ 
burgh, Erie, Scranton, or Williamsport. The Circuit Court 
of Appeals (page 176) holds sessions at Philadelphia. Busi- 
ness in the Supreme Court of the United States must be 
taken to Washington, D.C. 



238 SUPPLEMENT 

Customs duties (page 150) are collected at Erie and 
Philadelphia by collectors of customs. For the collection 
of the internal revenue taxes on whisky and tobacco the 
State is divided into four districts, in each of which are an 
internal revenue collector and several deputies. These 
officers visit the distilleries and factories scattered through- 
out the State and collect the taxes due the Federal Govern- 
ment. 

In addition to the above-mentioned officers of the Fed- 
eral Government whose duties lie in Pennsylvania, there 
are nearly 5000 Federal postmasters, and as many sub- 
ordinate post-office employees. The Federal Government 
maintains within the State five weather bureaus where 
forecasts of the weather are made. These are located at 
Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Erie, Harrisburg, and Scranton. 
In Philadelphia there is a United States mint, a navy yard, 
a marine hospital, a naval home, a naval hospital, and an 
arsenal. 



AUG 28 1912 



